?8Si 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


To  the 

Top  of  the  Continent 


Discovery,  Exploration  and  Adventure 

in    Sub-arctic   Alaska.      The    First   Ascent 

of  Mt.   McKinley,   1903-1906 

By 

FREDERICK  A.  COOK,  M.  D. 

Author  of  "  Through  the  First  Antarctic  Night  " 

Chevalier  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  I.     Member  of  the  American,  National^ 

Philadelphia,  and  Belgian  Geographical  Societies 

President  of  the  Explorers  Club 


Illustrated  from  photographs  by  the  author, 
a  frontispiece  in  color,  drawings,  and   maps 


New  York 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 

1908 


Copyright,  1904,  1907,  by  Harper  and  Brothers 

Copyright,  190S,  by  Fkederick  A.  Cook 
Published,  February,   1908 


ALL    RIGHTS    KESERVKD 

INCLUDINO    THAT  OF   TRANSLATION    INTO    FOREIGN    LANGUAGES 

INCLUDING   THE    SCANDINAVLAN 


Cm  t 


TO    THE    LITTLE    PARTY   AT    HOME 

WHO    PATIENTLY    AWAITED 

OUR    RETURN 


1970! 8 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

THE  AUTHOR  AND  PUBLISHERS  WISH  TO  THANK  MESSRS.  HAR- 
PER AND  BROTHERS  FOR  PERMISSION  TO  REPRODUCE  THAT 
PART  OF  THE  TEXT  AND  SEVERAL  OF  THE  ILLUSTRATIONS 
WHICH    ORIGINALLY    APPEARED    IN    "HARPERS    MAGAZINE." 


INTRODUCTORY 

In  the  development  of  the  project  for  the  con- 
quest of  the  mountain  which  this  volume 
narrates,  a  series  of  barriers  arose  which  seemed 
almost  unsurmountable.  A  great  mountain  was 
rediscovered  in  an  unexplored  district  and  chris- 
tened in  honour  of  our  late  President,  William 
McKinley.  Preliminary  investigation  proved  this 
mountain  to  be  the  highest  peak  in  North  America. 
Hidden  in  the  heart  of  Alaska,  far  from  the  sea, 
far  from  all  lines  of  travel,  this  newly  crowned 
alpine  rival  pierced  the  frosty  blue  of  the  Arctic 
within  reach  of  the  midnight  sun.  The  recog- 
nition of  the  pre-eminence  of  this  peak,  together 
with  its  fitting  designation,  framed  a  national 
mountaineering  challenge  which  we  took  up  fully 
realising  the  strenuous  task  which  it  entailed. 
The  mere  effort  of  getting  to  the  base  of  the 
mountain  with  sufficient  supplies  to  prolong  the 
siege  required  the  exploration  of  thousands  of 
miles  of  trackless  wilderness.  Unlike  most  other 
big  mountains  this  giant  uplift  rises  suddenly 
out  of  a  low  country  and  the  climb  begins  over 
ice  torn  by  crevasses  and  weighted  down  by 
sharp  stones.  Above  were  19,000  feet  of  unknow- 
able troubles,  wherein  the  rush  of  the  crumbling, 


X     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

tumbling  earth  with  its  storms  and  snows  must 
be  guarded  against.  Such  an  expedition  involved 
most  of  the  difficulties  of  arctic  travel  and  all 
of  the  hardships  of  high  alpine  ascents  multi- 
plied many  times,  but  with  the  working  incentive 
of  pioneer  adventure,  and  with  the  spiritual  ex- 
hiliration  of  discovery,  all  these  obstacles,  it  was 
hoped,  would  eventually  be  bridged. 

Mountaineering  as  we  assume  it  in  this  venture 
is  a  department  of  exploration,  and  as  such  it  is 
worthy  of  a  higher  appreciation  than  that  usually 
accorded  it.  Among  our  British  cousins  there 
has  long  been  an  admirable  spirit  of  mountain 
adventure  which  has  developed  into  a  well-defined 
sport.  In  America  there  has  recently  grown  a 
similar  appreciation  of  alpine  ascents.  This  is 
made  clear  by  the  vigorous  growth  of  the  Alpine, 
the  Appalachian,  the  Mazama,  the  Sierra,  and 
other  mountain  clubs.  Mountaineering  is  too 
often  put  down  as  a  kind  of  dare-devil  sport, 
of  risky  feats  on  cloud-piercing  pinnacles;  but 
in  climbing  there  is  an  inspiration  expanding 
with  the  increase  of  vision  which  is  capable  of 
much  development.  In  the  records  of  high  ascents 
there  is  not  only  the  glory  of  the  pioneer  spirit 
of  conquest,  but  also  data  for  scientific  research 
as  well  as  fascinating  studies  in  art.  When  prim- 
itive man  climbed  the  nearest  hills  to  get  a  better 
view  of  the  animals  he  sought,  the  sport  of  climbing 
began.  When  he  extended  this  climb  to  higher 
hills  to  note  the  lands  beyond,  then  the  science 


INTRODUCTORY  xi 

of  geography  was  born,  but  when  he  returned  and 
conveyed  to  others  not  only  the  glory  of  his 
enlarged  horizon  but  the  spirit  of  the  outlook  then 
the  climbers'  art  was  established.  The  succeeding 
generations,  wandering  into  new  areas  and  expect- 
ing always  the  end  of  the  world  just  beyond  the 
horizon,  have  climbed  mountains  that  they  might 
see  into  the  mysterious  lands  beyond.  Seeing  no 
abrupt  termination,  men  have  moved  on,  have 
climbed  other  mountains,  have  looked  farther  over 
the  globe,  until  to-day  there  is  the  prospect  of 
wireless  telegraph  stations  reaching  from  peak  to 
peak,  from  pole  to  pole. 

The  mountain  climber  and  the  arctic  explorer  in 
their  exploits  run  to  kindred  attainments.  The 
polar  traveller  walks  over  uniform  snows,  over 
moving  seas  of  wind-driven  ice;  his  siege  is  long 
and  his  main  torment  is  the  long  winter  dark- 
ness. The  mountaineer  reaches  heavenward  over 
the  snows  of  cloudland.  His  task  is  shorter  but 
more  strenuous  and  his  worst  discomfort  is  the 
task  of  breathing  rarefied  air.  In  the  general 
routine,  however,  both  suffer  a  similar  train  of 
hardships,  which  hardships  are  followed  by  a 
similar  movement  of  mental  awakening,  of  spiritual 
aspirations,  and  of  profound  and  peculiar  philoso- 
phy. Thus  the  stream  of  a  new  hope,  of  dreams 
and  raptures  is  started,  and  this  stream  seeks  a 
groove  down  the  path  of  life  for  ever  after.  It 
follows  that  he  who  ventures  into  the  polar  arena 
or  the  cloud  battlefield  of  high  mountains  will 


xii    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

long  to  return  again  and  again  to  the  scene  of  his 
suffering  and  inspiration.  This  return  habit  or 
migratory  spirit  is  a  curious  study  in  one  of  the 
first  primitive  instincts  and  its  most  potent  factor 
is  the  joy  of  discovery  and  exploration.  Mount- 
aineers and  polar  explorers  are  thus  members  of 
a  widely  separated  family,  and  they  should  be 
brought  closer  together  as  brothers  in  a  new 
school  of  pioneer  adventure.  We  have  much  to 
learn  of  each  other. 

The  exploration  of  the  Alaska  Range  was  not 
seriously  attempted  until  the  Klondyke  stampede 
of  1897  indicated  the  mineral  prospects  of  the 
adjoining  territory.  Gold  had  earlier  been  found 
in  the  Cook  Inlet  district  but  the  interior  from 
the  Inlet  to  the  Yukon  was  a  terra  incognita. 
With  the  surprising  speed  of  the  new  gold  rush 
various  government  reconnoissance  expeditions 
were  directed  into  this  area  of  mystery.  At  about 
the  same  time  the  gold  diggers  pressed  up  the 
Susitna  and  among  them  was  W.  A.  Dickey,  who 
in  1898  sighted  a  big  peak,  christened  it  Mount  Mc- 
Kinley,  and  guessed  at  its  altitude  with  surpris- 
ing correctness  as  20,000  feet.  A  sketch  of  the 
mountain  with  notes  was  sent  to  the  New  York 
Sun  and  the  data  thus  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  noted  geographer  Cyrus  C.  Adams  were 
placed  on  record. 

A  good  deal  has  been  said  bearing  on  the  wisdom 
of  placing  a  modern  name  over  a  landmark  that 
would  seem  to  have  been  recognised  and  named 


INTRODUCTORY  xiii 

for  ages.  We  have  taken  much  trouble  to  clear 
this  point,  but  up  to  the  present  have  been  unable 
to  trace  a  name  which  was  previously  used  to 
specifically  designate  this  particular  peak.  The 
Russians  applied  the  name  Bolshoy,  meaning  big, 
to  many  high  mountains,  and  this  name  was  given 
to  the  peak  in  question  with  its  companion  peaks 
in  the  central  group.  Thus  Bolshoy  was  the  general 
name  for  the  highest  section  of  the  Alaska  Range. 
The  Susitna  Indians  gave  the  name  To-lah-gah 
to  the  same  group.  Therefore  the  new  name  Mt. 
McKinley  finds  a  proper  setting  to  a  fitting  monu- 
ment as  a  token  of  appreciation  to  the  memory  of 
one  of  our  greatest  statesmen. 

The  titanic  slopes  of  ice  and  granite  of  this  most 
majestic  of  American  summits  rise  out  of  the 
low  wet  wilderness  of  mid-Alaska,  dividing  the 
game  and  gold  countries  which  will  soon  be 
trailed  by  the  prospector  and  the  nimrod,  dividing 
also  the  tributary  waters  of  the  Yukon,  the 
Kuskokwim,  and  the  Susitna,  Alaska's  greatest 
rivers.  From  the  west  the  giant  cliffs  rise  suddenly 
out  of  an  ancient  glacial  shelf  extending  hundreds 
of  square  miles.  Here  good  grass  is  found  in 
abundance,  and  herds  of  caribou  graze  along 
the  edge  of  the  timber  line.  At  the  heads  of 
countless  glacial  streams  the  moose  nibbles  sprigs. 
In  the  endless  fields  of  blueberries  the  huge  grizzly 
bear  grunts  in  peace,  and  along  the  foothills  in 
great  white  zigzags  the  snowy  mountain  sheep 
climbs  to  untroubled  joys.     To  the  north-east  and 


xiv    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

south-west  the  higher  slopes  are  continuous  with 
a  narrow  saw- toothed  ridge  ten  thousand  feet 
high.  The  approaches  from  the  north  and  east 
are  guarded  by  a  wide  belt  of  mountains  rising 
to  altitudes  of  twelve  thousand  feet,  but  from 
the  south-east  there  is  an  unobstructed  view. 
From  the  banks  of  the  Susitna  River  the  mountain 
stands  out  a  huge  succession  of  cliffs  weighted 
down  with  all  the  snow  it  can  possibly  carry. 
Many  glaciers  receive  the  ceaseless  downpour  of 
avalanches  from  the  misty  heights,  and  these 
glaciers  extend  to  amphitheatres  where  the  clouds 
deposit  their  frozen  vapours  carried  from  the 
warm  Japan  current. 

The  task  of  getting  to  the  base  of  this  mountain 
is  a  prodigious  venture  which  offers  very  many 
difficult  obstacles  to  the  transportation  of  men 
and  supplies.  The  prospective  conqueror  of  this 
immense  uplift  must  pick  his  path  through  forest 
and  marsh,  to  one  of  its  many  glaciers,  and  then 
begin  the  climb  at  2000  feet  or  lower.  He  as- 
cends for  miles  over  sharp  broken  stones  and  then 
up  a  slope  of  seracs  and  arates,  around  gloomy 
cloud-rubbed  rocks,  up  into  the  most  desperate 
cold  that  man  has  encountered. 

We  tried  not  to  underestimate  the  arduous  task 
or  the  unavoidable  hardships  of  our  assumed 
mission.  Months  were  spent  in  preparation  to 
use  human  energy  to  the  best  advantage  and  with 
the  greatest  economy.  Our  ultimate  success  was 
due  mainly  to  this  preliminary  preparation.     For 


INTRODUCTORY  xv 

the  purpose  of  our  enterprise  the  usual  moun- 
taineering equipment  was  quite  impossible,  for  our 
limited  means  of  transportation,  and  likewise  the 
assistance  of  alpine  guides  seemed  of  doubtful 
value  because  of  the  prolonged  task  of  difficult 
exploration  in  low  countries  before  the  alpine 
work  was  to  begin. 

The  food  and  fuel  supply  for  a  prolonged  ascent 
over  icy  slopes  will  always  prove  a  difficult  problem. 
In  this  phase  of  our  work  we  were  greatly  helped 
by  the  experience  in  polar  effort.  After  many 
years  of  experiment  I  have  about  concluded 
that  all  the  gastronomic  needs  are  best  supplied 
by  pemmican,  biscuits,  and  sugar.  A  few  minor 
accessories  might  be  added  but  this  is  all  that  is 
absolutely  required.  For  fuel  we  burned  wood 
below  3000  feet,  kerosene  for  the  preliminary 
exploration  among  the  foothills,  and  alcohol  for 
the  high  camps. 

The  entire  equipment  for  the  climbing  expedition 
differed  radically  from  that  usually  carried,  but  the 
special  things  which  led  to  success  were  a  light 
Shantung  silk  tent  and  a  combined  robe  and 
sleeping  bag,  together  weighing  but  eight  pounds. 

With  this  refinement  of  climbing  equipment 
we  were  able  to  be  independent  of  guides  and  of 
porters,  for  the  necessary  weights  which  we  trans- 
ported were  so  reduced  that  with  fifty  pounds  on 
each  of  our  backs  we  were  completely  outfitted  for 
a  campaign  of  two  weeks.  It  is  not  often  that  a 
more  prolonged  siege  is  necessary  from  a  base  camp. 


xvi  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

For  the  pioneer  work  of  the  low  country  we  were 
guided  by  the  experience  of  the  exploring  parties 
of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  and  the  needs 
of  the  prospectors.  Our  food  supply  here  was 
flour,  bacon,  beans,  and  the  various  accessories 
which  the  gold  diggers  have  found  best.  For 
transportation  we  secured  pack  horses  east  of 
the  Cascade  Range;  semi-wild,  hardy  animals 
that  endured  the  hardships  of  Alaska  very  well. 
For  river  transportation  we  built  a  special  river 
boat  able  to  cope  with  shallow  swift  streams. 
This  double  system  of  transportation  was  of  vital 
importance  to  us. 

In  the  run  of  failures  and  successes  which  marked 
our  conquest,  I  was  nobly  supported  by  two  loyal 
parties  of  able  assistants.  No  great  task  of  ex- 
ploration can  succeed  without  a  strong  bond  of 
helpfulness  extending  to  the  leader  and  to  the 
family  of  workers.  The  unselfish  energy  expended 
by  every  man  in  my  parties  was  very  commendable. 
We  did  have  our  minor  differences,  but  in  the  main 
the  interest  in  the  success  of  each  expedition  was 
ever  foremost.  To  these  men  and  to  a  number 
of  warm  friends  who  at  home  have  assisted  in  the 
enterprise  is  due  a  large  measure  of  praise. 

Frederick  Albert  Cook. 

670  BusHwicK  Ave., 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Introductory  .....        ix 

PART  I THE  EXPEDITION  OF   I903 

I.     With  the  Breath  of  the  Tropics  into  the 

Arctic     ......  I 

II.     From  Volcanic  Fires  to  Frigid  Jungle        .        12 

III.  Westward  through  the  Alaska  Range  into 

the  Kuskokwim        .  .  .  .21 

IV.  Through    the    World's    Best    Big    Game 

Country  .  .  .  .  -35 

V.     Up  the  Slopes  of  Mt.  McKinley  from  the 

Southwest  —  The  First  Defeat .  .        48 

VI.     Against  the  Western  Face  of  Mt.  McKinley 

—  The  Second  Defeat      .  .  -57 

VII.     Northward  through  the  Range   and  into 

the  ChuHtna    .  .  .  .  -71 

VIII.      Fording,     Swimming,   and  Rafting  the 

ChuHtna 82 

IX.     Down  the  Susitna.      Around   the  Alaska 

Range    ......       91 

PART    II THE   EXPEDITION  OF   1906 

I.     With   the    Prospector   into   a   New   Gold 

Country  .....        99 

II.     Preparations  for  the  Cross-country  March. 

Motor-boating  in  Cook  Inlet      .  .106 

III.     Through     the     Valley     of    the     Yentna. 

Climbing  Tumbling  Waters  in  a  Motor 

Boat       .  .  .  .  .  -115 

xvii 


xviii  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

CHAPTr.a  PAGE 

1 V .     Discoveries  About  Mt.  Dall  and  the  Yentna 

Headwaters  .  .  .  .127 

V.     Into  the  Yentna  Canyons         .  .  .135 

VI.     Northward   to   Mt.    McKinley   over   New 

Gold  Diggings  .  .  .  .148 

VII.     Over  Gold-strewn  Lowlands  to   Mt.   Mc- 
Kinley from  the  South  .  .  .161 
VIII.     With  the  Descending  Cloud  Waters  Back 

to  the  Sea.     The  Party  Scatters  .      174 

IX.     Up  the  Susitna  and  Chulitna  by   Motor 

Boat 183 

X.  Discover  a  Way  to  Reach  the  Summit  of 
Mt.  McKinley.  Preparations  for  the 
Climb  .  .  .  .190 

XI.     To  the  Northeast  Ridge.     In  a  Snowhouse 

at  12,000  Feet  ....     203 

XII.     To     the    Brink    of     an     Arctic    Inferno. 

A  Night  in  a  Ditch  at  14,000  Feet     .      212 

XIII.  Glory  and   Desolation  above  the  Clouds 

from  16,300  to  18,400  Feet         .  .      221 

XIV.  To  the  Top.     The  World  in  White  and  the 

Heavens  in  Black    .  .  .  .229 

APPENDICES 

Appendix  A.     Sketch  of  Geology  of  Mt.  McKinley 

Region.     By  Alfred  H.  Brooks       .  .  -237 

Appendix  B.  Biological  Data  and  Specimens 
Collected  by  Charles  Sheldon.  Descriptions 
by  Wilfred  H.  Osgood  .  .  .  .261 

Appendix   C.     The   Cook   Inlet   Aborigines,     By 

Charles  Sheldon.  .  .  .  .  .269 

Appendix  D.     Railway    Routes   in   Alaska.     By 

Alfred  H.  Brooks         .         .  .         .  -279 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Mt.  McKinley.  20,390  feet. 
America 


Highest  Mountain  in 

Frontispiece 


Portrait  of  Frederick  A.  Cook,  M.  D. 

Along  the  Alaska  Coast  Near  Sitka 

The  Party  of  1 903 

Totem  Poles,  Sitka 

Redoubt  Volcano,  Cook  Inlet 

Tyonok      ..... 

Into  the  Chulitna  Canyons  . 

Guiding  a  Horse  Ashore,  Cook  Inlet 

A  Kenai  Waif      .... 

The  Susitna  Chief 

Susitna  Mother  and  Child     . 

The  Imprint  of  a  Hard  Life 

The  Big  Brown  Bear  of  the  Eastern  Slopes 

Alaska  Range        .... 

The  White  Mountain  Sheep 
Cutting  Steps  in  the  Ice 
Breaking  Camp  on  the  Southwest  Ridge 
Harvey  Glacier  ..... 

Mt.  McKinley  from  the  Northwest 
Bridgman  River  .... 

The  Mt.  McKinley  Caribou  . 

Out  of  the  Clouds  Down  to  the  Chulitna 

Over  an  Ice  Bridge      .... 

Rafting       ...... 

Motor-boating  in  the  North  Country  where 

and  Dawn  Run  Together 
In  Cook  Inlet  Storms  .... 


of  the 


Dusk 


PAGE 

2 

3 

14 

IS 
18 

19 
30 
30 
31 
31 
36 
37 

44 

45 
82 
82 
83 
83 
94 
94 
95 
95 
102 

103 
106 


XX     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


Horses  Fording  ....  .  . 

Porter  Sketching  Contours  from  Above  the  Clouds 

Browne 

Raconvenze 

Beecher 

Parker 

Printz 

Barrille 

Brewing  Tea  in  Fields  of  Wild  Flowers 

Sub-arctic   Pond  Lilies 

Fording  the  Yentna     .... 

Ready  for  a  Plunge      .  . 

On  Lake  Bradley  .... 

Mt.  Disston  and  the  Gathering  Basins  East 
Ruth  Glacier       ..... 

Miner's  Map  of  Mt.  McKinley  Region,  Alaska,  .       i  $ 

A  Trout  Stream 

Wyckoff  Glacier 

Out  of  Great  Blue  Caverns  and  over  Precipices,  the 

Glacial  Waters  Pour  with  a  Maddening  Rush 
The  Plunge  of  the  Glacial  Streams.     Face  of  Hunt 

ington  Glacier       ..... 

Mt.  McKinley  Seen  from  Browne  Ridge 
Susitna  Pete        ...... 

Foot-hills  East  of  Mt.  Disston 

Top  of  Bryant  Peaks  ..... 

The  Face  of  Huntington  Glacier    . 

Mt.   Disston   and  Mt.  McKinley  from  a  Foot-hill 

Twenty  Miles  South       .... 
Camp  Scene  on  New  Gold  Diggings 
The  Eastern  Cliffs  of  Mt.  McKinley 

The  Silk  Tent 

Edward  Barrille  with  the  Camel-hair  Section  of  the 

Sleeping  Bag  as  a  Poncho 
Over  the  Moraine  of  Ruth  Glacier 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

First  Five  of  the  Twelve  New  Peaks  of  Ruth  Glacier     192 
Mt.  Barrille,  the  Northeast  Ridge  .  .  .193 

The  Middle  Northeast  Slopes         .  .  .  .196 

An  Amphitheatre         .  .  .  .  .  .197 

Sleeping  Bag        .......      202 

In  a  Snow-house  on  the  Northeast  Ridge        .  .     204 

In  the  Solitude  of  the  Cloud  World        .  .  .205 

Into  the  Breath  of  Death-dealing  Avalanches  .  208 
On  the  Brink  of  an  Arctic  Inferno  .  .  .209 

In  the  Silent  Glory  and  Snowy  Wonder  of  the  Upper 

World  .......      226 

The  Top  of  Our  Continent    .  .  .  .  .227 

Clouds  and  Cliffs,  13,000  Feet        ....      238 

Scene  of  Glaciers,  Peaks  and  Cliffs         .  .  .239 

Generalised  Section  through   Alaska  Range  along 

Valley  of  Cantwell  River         .  .         .  .247 

Generalised  Section  Alaska  Range  from  Skwentna 

River  to  Kuskokwim  River  ....  247 
Map  of  Alaska,   Showing    Navigable    Waters   and 

Railroads     .......      281 

Generalised  Profiles  of  Proposed  Railway  Routes    .      286 
Map  of  Alaska,  Showing  Mt.  McKinley  and  Gold- 
producing  Areas    .  .  .  .  .  .289 

Copper-bearing  Areas  of  Alaska,  so  far  as  Known  .  290 
Map  of  Alaska,  Showing  Distribution  of  Timber  .  293 
Map  of  Alaska,    Showing  the  Distribution  of  the 

Coal-bearing  Rocks,  so  far  as  Known       .  .296 

Geographic    Provinces     of     Northwestern      North 

America        .......      300 

The  Increasing  Gold  Production  of  Alaska     .  -303 

Map  of  Alaska,  Showing  Railway  Routes  and  Known 

Occurrences  of  Economically  Important  Minerals  306 
Topographic  Reconnaissance  Map,  from  Controller 

Bay  to  Prince  William  Sound  .         .  .310 


PART  I 
THE  EXPEDITION  OF  1903 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE 
CONTINENT 


CHAPTER  I 

With  the  Breath  of  the  Tropics  Into  the 
Arctic 

WE  HAD  planned  to  go  to  the  top  of  the  conti- 
nent,  to   the   simimit   of   Mt.   McKinley. 
This  is,  perhaps,  the  most  inaccessible  of  all  the 
great  raountains  of  the  world;  but  it  is  also  the 
;  centre  of  one  of  the  most  fascinating  areas  of  rug- 
i  ged   wilderness.     The   huge    ice-corniced  granite 
cHffs  rise  in  successive  tiers  out  of  a  gold-strewn 
j  low   country,    over   which   wander   bear,   moose, 
caribou,  and  other  big  game  animals.     The  middle 
slopes  are  swept  by  a  sea  of  storm-driven  clouds, 
and  above,  far  above  the  usual  cloud  line,  there 
is  a  new  world  of  silent  glory  and  snowy  wonder. 
Peak  upon  peak,  range  upon  range,  the  great  uplift 
continues  to  rise  into  the  blackness  and  mystery 
of  the  arctic  heavens.     Our  route  is  through  pri- 
meval forests,  across  and  against  rushing  glacial 


2       TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

streams,  over  marshes  and  tundras,  on  to  tumbling 
glacial  ice,  up  into  the  frosty  mist  of  the  upper 
world.  The  obstacles  are  many,  but  the  splendid 
prosj^ective  achievement  of  the  conquest  is  in  fair 
proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  task. 

Alighting  from  the  luxurious  Northwestern 
Limited  we  began  our  conquest  by  a  jaunt  into 
the  primitive  at  North  Yakima.  Here  we  secured 
from  the  Indians  fifteen  pack-horses  of  the  kind 
which  we  believed  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  rough 
life  of  Alaskan  mountaineering.  The  Yakima 
cayuse  has  a  hard  struggle  for  subsistence  in 
high  sterile  country,  and  if  properly  trained  and 
of  good  size  he  works  well  and  endures  the  north- 
ern hardships  with  less  chances  of  breaking  down 
than  animals  raised  in  an  easier  environment. 
At  Seattle  we  spent  many  anxious  days  in  selecting 
food  and  equipment.  We  found  the  prices  there 
reasonable,  and  the  tradesmen  admirably  prepared 
to  fit  out  such  ventures  as  ours. 

In  due  time  the  expedition  with  its  many  needs 
was  on  board  the  quaint  Alaskan  coaster,  the 
steamer  Santa  Ana.  The  ropes  were  cast  off  at 
dawn  on  the  morning  of  June  9,  1903,  as  the  whis- 
tles started  a  run  of  noises  that  must  have  awak- 
ened the  whole  town.  Men  were  on  the  docks 
cheering  for  their  parting  comrades  en  route  to 
the  new  Eldorado  of  gold  and  hope ;  men  on  board 
were  giving  a  parting  shout  to  their  less  ambitious 
fellows  ashore.  All  of  this  himian  howl  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  chorus  from  horses,  cattle,  pigs,  dogs, 


FRF.DF.kICK    A.   COOK.    M.    D. 


'^  ^^^!^-€>^0 


■jiis'm^ 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT      3 

and  chickens  on  board,  giving  a  taste  of  wild, 
animal  excitement  in  keeping  with  our  mission. 
We  were  soon  gliding  over  the  silvery  surface  of 
Puget  Sound  and,  as  the  dark  spirals  of  smoke 
rose  from  the  city  through  the  still  balmy  air  into 
cloudless  skies,  we  got  a  superb  glimpse  of  the 
huge  forests  along  the  shore-line,  and,  far  beyond, 
the  magnificent  snow-crested  peaks  of  the  Coast 
Range.  Mt.  Tacoma  with  its  poetic  mountain 
solitude,  and  its  sublime  vapour  drapery  of  purple 
and  gold,  was  slowly  sinking  into  the  broad  green 
expanse.  All  on  board  were  on  deck  dreaming 
of  Alaska  and  the  return  a  few  months  hence  with 
pouches  of  gold  and  a  wealth  of  other  hopes.  Good 
weather  followed  while  the  landscape  improved 
with  our  progress  "down  north  and  up  along." 
The  rugged,  snowy  heights  of  Vancouver  Island, 
ever  wrapped  in  storm-clouds,  made  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  sunny,  quiet  waters  of  the  inland 
sea  which  laps  the  soft  green  shores  of  British 
Columbia.  Thus  we  followed  the  warm,  vapour- 
charged  breezes,  the  breath  of  the  tropics,  along 
the  evergreen  shore-line  of  Alaska  with  the  north- 
ward sweep  of  the  Pacific  into  the  icy  air  of  the 
Arctic. 

A  short  stop  was  made  at  Juneau  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  fourth  day,  and  from  there  delight- 
ful weather  followed  us  to  Sitka.  During  the 
night  we  steamed  easily  among  the  magnificent 
mountains  under  a  sky  ever  changing  from  tones 
of  blue  and  purple,  the  prow  sending  up  ripples  in 


4      TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

glittering  waters  which  reflected  the  snowy  peaks 
of  the  arctic  world  in  close  contrast  to  the  dense 
green  verdure  along  tempting  shore-lines.  The 
night  effect  was  nearly  that  of  the  higher  polar 
zones.  There  was  its  silvery  brightness,  its  in- 
spiring stillness,  its  elusive  grandeur,  plus  the  joys 
of  dense  forests  but  without  frigid  discomforts. 
Near  Sitka  we  saw  two  little  deer  sporting  on  a 
sandy  beach  apparently  unconcerned  at  the  sight 
of  a  big  ship  with  its  noise  and  smoke. 

Sitka  is  the  most  picturesque  and  the  most  orig- 
inal of  the  coast  towns  of  Alaska.  Its  numerous 
historic  reminiscences,  its  church,  its  old  Russian 
architecture,  and  its  totem  poles,  will  long  make 
it  a  mecca  for  tourists,  but  as  a  business  town  the 
outlook  is  not  cheerful.  The  fur  trade  is  no  longer 
profitable,  its  fisheries  are  controlled  by  large  can- 
neries. The  rival  mining  excitement  in  other 
cities  has  left  Sitka  a  lonely  town  interest- 
ing for  its  life  of  a  past  decade. 

On  leaving  Sitka  most  of  us  went  to  bed  to  await 
Neptune's  call,  for  here  we  plunged  from  the  quiet 
inland  waters  into  the  always  unruly  waters  of 
the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  The  weather  proved  unex- 
pectedly good,  and  the  Santa  Ana,  though  her 
decks  were  crowded  with  lumber,  coal,  cattle  and 
horses  and  other  live  stock,  rode  the  big  seas  with 
ease  and  grace  w^hile  Captain  Schage,  ever  on  the 
alert  for  the  comfort  of  his  charges,  made  life  easy 
and  interesting.  Early  in  the  mornine"  of  the  15  th 
the  curtain  of  mist  was  raised  from  the  Fairweather 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT       5 

Range.  During  the  night  the  needle  peaks  of 
Baranoff  Island  vied  with  the  easy  slopes  of 
Edgecomb  volcano  for  notice,  but  now  the  giant 
snowy  crests  of  this  unknown  cluster  of  great  peaks 
compelled  our  attention.  At  the  sound  of  the 
ship's  triangle  at  eight,  we  paced  the  decks  and 
discussed  the  principal  peaks  of  the  Fairweather 
and  St.  Elias  groups.  Mt.  Fairweather  was  in  all 
its  glory  of  glitter  and  colour.  A  bunch  of  pearly 
clouds  partly  screened  the  sun,  allowing  silvery 
beams  of  light  to  dart  upon  glacial  slopes,  while 
the  waters  near  the  ship  were  strewn  with  spouting 
whales.  Mt.  Fairweather  resembles  Mt.  McKinley  in 
is  general  environment  and  also  in  main  outline. 
We  noted  three  possible  routes  to  its  summit 
and  plotted  the  mountain  for  a  possible  future 
exploration. 

Mt.  St.  Elias  with  its  companion  peak  Mt. 
Logan  and  the  great  maze  of  glaciers  and  lesser 
mountains  next  took  our  attention.  Mt.  St. 
Elias  is  a  huge  pyramid  rising  out  of  an  immense 
area  of  glacial  ice  about  forty  miles  from  the  sea, 
while  Mt.  Logan,  a  great  whaleback  of  snow  in 
Canadian  territory,  twenty-five  miles  beyond  St. 
Elias,  among  a  sheen  of  giant  peaks,  is  plainly 
noted  as  the  greatest  of  the  coast  peaks.  Mt. 
Logan  is  over  19,000  feet  high  and  is  therefore 
the  second  highest  peak  in  North  America.  Its 
ascent  and  exploration  offer  many  difficulties 
because  of  the  arduous  task  of  approaching  its 
base.     Nevertheless,   if  supplies  were  moved  to 


6      TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  base  in  the  end  of  February  and  early  March, 
the  lower  areas  might  then  be  explored  while  food 
caches  were  appropriately  placed,  and  later  the 
final  climb  might  be  made  by  a  quick  assault. 

The  coast  from  Mt.  St.  Elias  to  Port  Valdez 
is  less  picturesque,  but  more  useful.  Placer  gold, 
copper,  coal,  and  petroleum  are  among  the  miner- 
als which  have  just  at  present  created  a  boom. 
No  less  than  four  railroads  are  here  in  the  course 
of  construction,  all  aiming  at  the  resources  of  the 
interior  of  Alaska,  but  mostly  the  copper  of  the 
Copper  River  Valley.  Two  of  these  roads  are  to 
start  from  points  near  the  delta  of  the  Copper 
River,  one  from  Valdez,  and  one  from  Seward. 
Each  terminus  has  had,  or  is  expected  to  have, 
its  boom.  Valdez  was  made  to  survive  while  its 
railroad  was  being  projected  on  paper;  later,  the 
town  discovered  itself,  made  a  trail  to  Fairbanks, 
located  copper  in  Prince  William  Sound,  and  now 
the  people  have  a  substantial  town  which  originally 
was  little  more  than  a  hope  for  the  future.  The 
same  can  be  said  of  Seward. 

With  a  lighter  cargo  and  less  animal  life  we 
steamed  over  the  mirrored  waters  of  Prince  Wil- 
liam Sound  with  its  fascinating  reflections  of 
glaciers  and  snmv-streaked  mountains,  around 
Kenai  Peninsula  into  the  great  gulf  named  in 
honour  of  its  discoverer.  Captain  James  Cook, 
Cook  Inlet.  A  delightful  run  of  a  few  hours  among 
grassy  islands  where  blue  foxes  are  farmed  took 
us  to  Seldovia.     This  harbour  is  a  quaint  little 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT       7 

basin  surrounded  by  a  few  Indian  log  huts  with 
grass  thatched  roofs,  a  Russian  church,  and  sev- 
eral trading  sheds. 

We  left  Seldovia  with  the  first  glimmer  of  dawn, 
aiming  to  catch  the  ingoing  tide  at  Anchor  Point. 
The  night  was  cloudy,  but  now  the  sky  cleared 
and  a  warm  glow  spread  over  the  cold  waters  of 
Cook  Inlet.  Mt.  McKinley,  two  hundred  and 
forty  miles  northward,  was  just  visible,  a  mere 
tooth  of  ice  biting  the  arctic  skies.  The  volcanoes, 
Chinabora,  Illiamna,  and  Redoubt,  were  all  send- 
ing columns  of  steam,  but  they  did  not  pourtray 
signs  of  warmth.  Illiamna  and  Redoubt  were 
particularly  frigid.  Great  mantles  of  ice  encased 
their  giant  slopes  to  within  two  thousand  feet 
of  the  sea  level.  The  Cook  Inlet  shores  showed 
signs  of  an  earlier  season  than  did  the  coast  from 
Sitka  to  Seward.  Indeed,  from  Seward  north- 
ward and  to  the  utmost  reaches  of  Cook  Inlet  the 
advanced  stage  of  vegetation  betrays  the  greater 
effect  of  the  Japan  current.  The  snow  here  had 
been  melted  several  weeks,  grass  was  thriving, 
the  alders,  willows,  and  birches  were  in  new  dress, 
and  the  overtime  work  of  the  sun  in  high  latitude 
was  everywhere  in  evidence. 

Tyonok,  a  little  row  of  log  huts,  dignified  by 
more  pretentious  storehouses  of  the  Alaska  Com- 
mercial Company,  was  not  sighted  until  we  were 
within  ten  miles  of  the  sand  spit  upon  which  it 
is  located.  Behind  it  we  noted  a  bank  perhaps 
four  hundred  feet  high  with  curious  lines  upon  it. 


S      TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Here  we  saw  as  we  got  nearer  cultivated  gardens, 
planted  on  steep  slopes  because  at  that  angle  the 
greatest  heat  would  be  absorbed.  These  gardens 
are  said  to  be  "planted  with  a  shotgun,  and  dug 
out  by  landslides."  Beyond  this  embankment 
there  is  a  wide  spread  of  timbered  tableland  which 
ends  in  the  foothills  of  Mt.  Spur,  a  snow  peak 
nearly  ii,ooo  feet  high.  The  foothills  and  asso- 
ciated peaks  of  this  mountain  are  so  extensive 
that  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  Mt.  Spur  has  the 
largest  base  of  any  mountain  in  North  America. 

At  2  A.M.  we  dropped  anchor  in  the  rushing  tidal 
current  a  half-mile  off  shore.  Among  the  huts  in 
Tyonok  wolfish  Eskimo  dogs  chased  each  other, 
sounding  their  harrowing  hov/ls.  This,  with  the 
whistle  of  the  Santa  Ana,  brought  out  a  few  half- 
clad,  half -awake  Indians.  On  board  ship  every- 
thing was  life  and  bustle,  men  and  horses  after  a 
long  sea  voyage  had  reached  their  destination; 
henceforth  a  keen  battle  was  to  be  fought  with 
the  sterner  elements  of  nature.  All  were  bent 
on  exploring,  some  for  gold,  some  to  find  the  haunts 
of  new  game,  and  others  to  climb  America's  giant 
peak.  To  the  east,  sharply  silhouetted  against 
the  orange  glow  of  dawn,  we  saw  Kenai  Peninsula, 
the  curious  line  of  ice-crested  mountains  of  uni- 
form height.  To  the  west  and  south-west,  under 
a  dark  purple  sky,  rose  the  rugged  outline  of  the 
Alaska  Peninsula.  The  most  noticeable  features 
of  this  sheen  of  cold,  hard  mountain  expanse  were 
the  smoking  volcanoes  of  Illiamna  and  Redoubt. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT      9 

The  icy  mantle  of  Illiamna  was  glowing  with  the 
fire  from  the  rising  sun.  Redoubt  spouted  flames 
and  vapours  and  gave  a  suggestion  of  life  and  heat 
to  what  appeared  to  be  a  land  of  death  and  frost. 

The  shore-line  of  the  head  of  Cook  Inlet  was 
screened  by  a  blue  haze,  but  several  times  during 
the  night  of  twilight  we  got  a  peep  of  a  snowy 
crest  which  pierced  the  blue  dome  far  northward. 
This  peak  like  a  star  on  a  cloudy  night  would 
blink  and  disappear  with  marvellous  quickness. 
It  did  not  seem  to  us  as  being  very  far  away,  nor 
did  it  give  the  impression  of  great  altitude,  but 
there  was  a  mystery  about  the  thing  which  kept 
one's  attention  pointed.  This  in  reality  was  Mt. 
McKinley,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  away,  the 
ultimate  destination  of  the  impatient  advent- 
urers on  board  the  Santa  Ana,  the  new  Eldorado 
of  the  big  game  hunter,  the  gold  seeker,  and  the 
mountaineer. 

I  found  it  interesting  to  try  to  note  the  reasons 
why  men  go  to  this  far-off  northland  to  fulfil  the 
ambitions  of  the  prospector,  the  hunter,  or  the 
mountaineer.  The  three  classes  have  no  interest 
in  common,  and  no  sympathy  for  each  other ;  each 
argued  that  the  other's  longing  should  be  satisfied 
nearer  home;  but  the  somewhat  similar  train  of 
troubles  in  prospect  for  them  made  a  kind  of  broth- 
erly bond  to  help  each  other.  We  were  all  the 
wildest  kind  of  dreamers. 

Soon  we  began  to  throw  the  horses  over  to 
swim   ashore,   but   the   tide  was   so  strong   and 


lo     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  water  so  cold  that  the  jioor  creatures  were 
nearly  exhausted  before  they  scented  the  shore. 
The  long  ocean  voyage  had  prepared  the  ani- 
mals doubly  to  aj^preciate  the  sense  of  se- 
curity of  land  and  its  growth  of  luscious  green 
grass.  Their  ears  quivered,  their  heads  raised, 
and  their  feet  were  light  when  green  fields  and  new 
forests  were  once  more  before  them. 

We  had  now  come  five  thousand  miles  only  to 
find  that  the  enormous  task  of  getting  to  the  base 
of  the  great  mountain  had  but  just  begun.  Thus 
far  our  voyage  had  been  one  of  pleasing  surprises 
greatly  enjoyed  by  all,  but  now  we  had  arrived 
at  the  parting  of  the  ways,  and  also  came  the  part- 
ing of  friends.  Mrs.  Cook  had  accompanied  us 
thus  far  and  w^as  eager  to  go  farther,  but  in  the 
anticipated  hardships  of  the  overland  trip  it  did 
not  seem  to  be  prudent  to  risk  the  discomforts, 
so  she  wisely  decided  to  limit  her  exploring  ven- 
tures to  the  more  congenial  coast  in  the  vicinity 
of  Valdez.  Captain  Schage  and  several  other 
friends  bade  us  a  hearty  farewell,  then  the  old 
steamer  turned  seaward  and  we  were  left  to 
work  out  the  task  of  transporting  ourselves  and 
supplies  over  regions  of  forests,  marshes,  and 
mountains  to  the  heart  of  Alaska. 

By  this  time  I  had  gotten  acquainted  with  the 
men  of  the  party,  and  it  was  now  clear  to  me  that 
I  had  made  no  mistake  in  the  selection  of  the  per- 
sonnel. At  any  rate  the  manly  faithfulness  of 
each  was  clear  and  while  we  must  have  personal 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     ii 

differences  of  opinion,  as  do  the  members  of  every 
pioneer  expedition,  the  determined  union  of  forces 
displayed  on  this  first  day  of  hard  work  was  never 
broken. 


CHAPTER  II 
From  Volcanic  Fires  to  Frigid  Jungle 

WE  HAD  quite  an  exciting  adventure  in 
training  our  semi-savage  horses  to  sub- 
mit to  carrying  packs.  The  long  period  en  route 
by  train  and  boat,  being  fed  on  oats  and  cooped 
up  in  small  boxes,  did  not  tend  to  a  taming  ten- 
dency. First  the  Indian  dogs  tormented  them, 
and  later  the  flies  and  mosquitoes  sapped  their 
blood,  and  now  we  were  trying  to  harness  the 
excited  animals.  They  had  about  decided  that 
this  new  land  promised  trouble  and  they  resented 
with  tooth  and  hoof.  For  two  days  we  packed 
the  cayuses  and  they  unpacked  themselves, 
kicking  us  and  the  packs  around  the  old  army 
barracks  in  lively  Western  style.  Ronzo,  the 
most  wicked  of  the  horse  desperadoes,  escaped 
so  many  times  and  made  such  dangerous  plunges 
that  we  thought  it  prudent  to  give  him  his  freedom. 
Finch,  the  energetic  storekeeper  of  the  Alaska 
Commercial  Company,  said  that  he  would  school 
him  to  a  better  life,  but  Ronzo 's  heels  were  too 
light  and  when  we  returned  four  months  later 
he  was  still  the  hero  of  liberty,  roaming  at  will  in 
the  forests  toward  the  fires  of  Redoubt  volcano. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     13 

Packed  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
each  the  horses  were  started  northward  on  the 
morning  of  June  25th  along  the  beach  of  Cook 
Inlet.  The  animals  were  frisky  and  set  a  rapid 
pace.  Soon  after  noon  we  reached  the  end  of  an 
extensive  fiat  meadow  which  marked  the  begin- 
ning of  the  low  country  of  the  delta  of  the  Beluga. 
Here  we  found  in  abundance  the  three  necessities 
of  camp  life,  grass,  wood,  and  water,  and  soon 
decided  to  camp.  On  the  following  day  we  set 
a  course  through  a  jungle  out  of  which  the  snow 
had  just  melted,  to  the  first  bank  above  the  delta 
about  five  miles  from  the  mouth.  Here  we  saw  a 
large  brown  bear  on  the  opposite  shore  pitching 
salmon  on  the  beach.  The  bear  paid  no  attention 
to  us,  and  since  we  were  not  in  need  of  either  his 
skin  or  his  meat  we  did  not  interrupt  his  sport. 
Successive  schools  of  white  whales  (belugas) 
ascended  the  river,  cutting  the  oily,  chocolate 
coloured  surface  of  the  waters  in  a  vigorous  but 
graceful  manner  and  spouting  jets  of  vapour 
with  a  sound  that  reverberated  from  shore  to 
shore,  breaking  the  silence  of  an  otherwise  deso- 
late wilderness. 

The  Beluga  River  takes  its  name  from  these 
white  whales  ascending  its  waters.  From  the 
miners  who  have  prospected  its  shores  to  the 
source  we  learned  that  the  river  is  about  thirty 
miles  long  and  starts  from  two  deep  lakes.  These 
lakes  are  supplied  by  glacial  streams  coming  from 
the  mountains  to  the  north  and  east  of  Mt.  Spur. 


14     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Great  overhanging  glaciers  are  above  the  last  of 
these  lakes  and  the  frequent  earthquakes  shake 
down  extensive  masses  of  ice,  which,  falling  into 
the  lake,  cause  the  river  to  rise  with  a  dangerous 
suddenness.  One  of  these  strange  floods  occurred 
in  winter  when  the  temperature  was  40°  below 
zero,  and  all  the  river  was  covered  with  ice. 
Suddenly  the  ice  and  the  flats  were  flooded  and 
the  miners  who  were  sledding  up  the  river  barely 
escaped  by  climbing  trees,  for  a  flood  at  such  a 
temperature  makes  a  sweep  of  death  to  all  living 
things. 

The  Beluga  is  very  shallow  at  its  mouth  but 
at  high  tide  moderate-sized  boats  with  a  draft 
of  not  more  than  four  feet  can  cross  the  delta. 
Above  the  stream  deepens  and  narrows  to  about 
four  hundred  feet.  It  is  navigable  for  about  ten 
miles  and  with  dories  much  farther.  This  would 
make  a  splendid  area  for  a  small  exploring  party. 
Bears  are  very  numerous  and  the  chances  for 
other  game  are  good.  The  opportunities  for 
original  discovery  are  not  surpassed  by  many 
other  regions.  Placer  gold,  copper,  and  coal  exist 
here,  in  tempting  quantities.  The  river  winds 
through  a  densely  forested  low  country  where 
botanical  enthusiasts  and  collectors  of  small  life 
are  likely  to  make  many  discoveries.  In  the  lakes 
should  be  found  rare  specimens  and  in  the  mount- 
ains above  there  are  new  unmapped  snow  peaks 
and  glaciers  enough  to  satisfy  the  most  ardent 
alpine  climber. 


->•*      t.~ 


TOTEM  POLES,  SITKA 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     15 

From  Tyonok  a  boat  was  sent  to  the  Beluga 
to  ferry  the  men  and  the  packs.  This  task  about 
completed  we  took  the  lead  horse,  fastened  to  him 
a  long  rope,  urged  him  into  the  river,  and  pad- 
dled slowly  across  stream,  while  the  other  horses 
were  forced  to  plunge  in  from  a  cut  bank.  They 
gathered  in  a  bunch,  snorting,  and  tried  to  get 
back  to  the  shore  from  which  they  started.  Fail- 
ing in  this  they  took  to  the  stream  for  the  green 
meadows  opposite  where  the  lead  horse  was 
towed  as  a  decoy.  They  climbed  out  on  the  soft 
marshes  and  here  they  saw  many  fresh  bear 
tracks  which  interested  them  very  much.  With 
their  noses  to  the  footprints  they  started  in  a 
hasty  pursuit  like  dogs  on  the  chase. 

The  route  which  we  had  outlined  to  the  western 
slopes  of  Mt.  McKinley  was  one  explored  and  ad- 
vocated by  Alfred  H.  Brooks  of  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey.  From  the  Beluga  there  was  an 
old  Indian  winter  trail  close  to  the  head  waters 
of  the  Theodora  River  over  bald  hills  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Talushulitna  River,  and  from  thence 
keeping  a  general  north-western  course  to  the  head 
waters  of  Canyon  Creek,  following  this  creek  to 
the  Skwentna  River.  Descending  the  Skwentna 
to  a  point  about  a  mile  below  the  lower  canyon 
and  crossing  here  the  trail  wound  around  the 
shell  hills  over  an  old  trail  cut  by  Lieutenant 
Heron.  We  aimed  to  cross  the  range  through 
Simpson  Pass  into  the  Kuskokwim  and  from 
there,    above    the    tree    line    and    close    to    the 


1 6     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Alaska  Range  we  expected  to  find  a  trail  to  Mt. 
McKinley. 

Under  the  direction  of  Dunn  the  pack  train 
was  started  over  the  Indian  trail  for  the  Skwentna. 
I  estimated  that  it  would  take  about  seven  days 
to  cover  this  sixty  miles  of  very  difficult  travel- 
ling through  dense  forests  over  marshes  and  tun- 
dras. We  anticipated  considerable  difficulty  in 
getting  a  boat  to  the  Skwentna  ford  in  time  to 
ferry  the  packs  across  without  delay.  Though 
I  should  have  preferred  to  join  the  pack  train  the 
uncertainties  of  the  boat  mission  were  so  great 
that  I  assumed  the  responsibilities  of  that  com- 
paign  with  Miller  as  my  associate.  In  our  small 
dory  loaded  to  the  gunwale  we  drifted  quickly 
along  the  cut  banks  of  the  Beluga  in  oily  brown 
waters,  out  through  the  delta  with  its  great  stir 
of  bird  life  into  the  rushing  tide  ripples  of  Cook 
Inlet.  We  thought  we  had  gauged  the  tide  time 
rightly,  for  in  the  Inlet  tide  not  time  rules  every 
movement  by  land  or  sea.  Ashore  progress  is  only 
possible  along  the  sandy  beach  at  low  tide;  by 
water,  since  the  tidal  current  is  eight  miles  per 
hour,  everything  goes  with  it.  We  aimed  to  strike 
the  tide  high  and  so  go  over  the  great  flats  into 
the  delta  of  the  Susitna  River.  The  river  is  about 
five  mile&'wide  at  its  mouth  with  but  two  or  three 
navigable  channels  very  difficult  to  find.  While 
searching  for  these  channels  the  tide  suddenly 
went  out  and  left  us  high  on  a  vast  mud  flat.  In 
a  few  minutes  we  found  our  boat  glued  to  a  pasty 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     17 

clay  a  mile  from  shore  and  three  miles  from  the 
receding  tide  waters.  This  was  exactly  what  we 
had  tried  to  avoid,  for  we  knew  that  the  rising 
tide  was  likely  to  come  with  the  wild  sweep  of  a 
destructive  boa,  filling  our  boat  before  she  could 
rise  from  the  sticky  clay. 

The  ensuing  night  caused  us  a  great  deal  of 
anxiety.  Our  first  concern  was  to  devise  some 
plan  to  raise  the  boat  on  planks  so  the  coming 
tide  would  not  find  us  pasted  to  the  clay.  This 
was  soon  accomplished  and  then  we  sought  some 
wood  for  a  camp-fire.  A  good  portion  of  the  night 
was  spent  in  brewing  tea,  cooking  beans,  and  bak- 
ing bread  while  we  watched  carefully  the  weather 
signs.  For  an  incoming  wind  with  the  tide  would 
mean  destruction  to  us.  We  took  turns  in  keeping 
up  the  watch  for  the  coming  danger. 

This  night  with  its  run  of  uncomfortable  pre- 
;  monitions  was  nevertheless  strikingly  impressive. 
i  The  sun  sank  under  the  rugged  snowy  peaks  of 
1  the  Tordrillo  Range,  leaving  a  warm  rosy  after- 
glow over  everything.  Even  the  mud  which, 
I  ordinarily  black  and  repulsive,  covered  our  sur- 
I  roundings  glittered  with  reflected  colours.  Re- 
i  doubt  volcano,  eighty-five  miles  south,  in  a  cloak 
of  violet  snow,  belched  huge  tongues  of  fire  and 
I  clouds  of  vapour.  One  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
I  south,  still  plainly  visible,  was  Mt.  lUiamna, 
I  clear  cut,  its  cone  of  bright  purple  snow  standing 
I  against  a  sky  of  dark  purple-blue.  Then  as  the 
j  eye  glanced  across  the  great  expanse  of  rushing 


i8     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

waters  of  Cook  Inlet  it  rested  upon  a  sea  of  fas- 
cinating blues  and  purples  and  violets,  flooded 
by  the  rose  and  gold  of  the  parting  sun.  Far  ofif 
to  the  west,  under  a  haze  of  blue,  w^ere  the  curious 
mountains  of  equal  height,  characteristic  of  the 
Kenai  Peninsula.  To  the  north  Mt.  Susitna, 
dull,  black,  and  gloomy,  wrapped  in  storm  clouds, 
apparently  but  a  stone's  throw  though  fifteen 
miles  away,  and  to  the  eastward  of  it  the  great 
broad  delta  of  the  Susitna  River,  covered  by  a 
dense  verdure,  almost  tropical  in  luxuriance.  It 
was  a  scene  which  rapidly  changed  in  colour  and 
interest  as  the  long  twilight  of  the  arctic  midsum- 
mer night  advanced. 

In  the  morning  the  tide  came  and  lifted  us  as 
easily  as  it  had  left  us,  and  then  we  pulled  for  the 
left  fork  of  the  Susitna  River.  We  soon  found 
that  the  current  of  the  river  was  too  strong  for 
rowing,  so  we  tried  towing.  At  noon  we  came  to 
a  small  Indian  settlement,  where  we  got  an  Indian 
boy  by  the  name  of  Stephen  to  assist  us.  Stephen 
proved  to  be  an  expert  boatman,  but  our  troubles 
increased  with  every  mile  of  advance.  The  water 
got  swifter  and  deeper,  too  swift  to  paddle  and 
too  deep  to  pole,  while  the  cut  banks  and  over- 
hanging brush  made  lining  almost  impossible. 

On  the  morning  of  July  2d,  after  nearly  four 
days  of  the  hardest  kind  of  river  boating,  we 
reached  Susitna  Station,  a  small  trading  post 
twenty  miles  up  the  river.  The  weather  had  been 
uniformly  bad,  cold  and  wet,  but  it  did  not  prevent 


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TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     19 

the  gnats  and  mosquitoes  from  doing  their  worst. 
These  persistent  pests  followed  us  over  the  waters 
in  clouds,  with  a  buzz  that  drove  us  to  the  verge 
of  madness.  Our  hands  and  faces  were  so  badly 
bitten  that  we  developed  serious  forms  of  inflam- 
mation, followed  by  pain,  fever,  and  torture  in- 
describable. All  this  in  spite  of  great  care  in 
protecting  ourselves  by  "dope,"  veils,  gloves,  and 
a  mosquito-proof  tent.  I  have  seen  mosquitoes 
and  allied  pests  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  the 
Susitna  denizens  are  certainly  in  my  experience 
by  far  the  most  desperate  in  their  attack  upon 
man  and  beast. 

At  the  Station  we  secured  Evan,  an  Indian 
friend  of  Stephen,  to  assist  us;  we  also  obtained 
a  better  river  boat.  We  had  arranged  to  meet 
the  pack  train  at  a  point  fifteen  miles  up  the 
Skwentna  River  in  a  week  after  leaving  the  Beluga. 
We  had  spent  five  days  in  ascending  the  Susitna 
twenty  miles,  and  now  there  were  sixty  miles  of 
worse  water  ahead  of  us  before  we  could  join  our 
party.  Our  Indians  told  us  that  it  would  take 
twenty  days  to  meet  the  horses. 

Soon  after  leaving  the  Station  we  pulled  up  the 
Yentna  River,  a  great  glacial  stream  a  half-mile 
wide  draining  most  of  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Alaska  Range. 

Poling  and  towing,  rowing,  pushing,  and  by  all 
kinds  of  devices,  we  averaged  twelve  miles  daily. 
The  fifteen  miles  up  the  Skwentna  River  to  the 
canyon,  which  we  were  told  could  not  be  made  in 


20    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

less  than  a  week,  was  covered  in  one  long  day.  On 
the  morning  of  the  8th  of  July,  we  pitched  camp  on 
a  small  island  in  the  Skwentna  River,  two  miles 
below  the  canyon,  the  appointed  place  to  meet 
the  pack  train.  Nothing  was  observed  of  our 
companions,  though  we  expected  them  to  have 
been  in  waiting  several  days,  till  noon  of  the  same 
day,  when  we  heard  a  voice  and  soon  we  saw  the 
horses  moving  along  the  southern  side  of  the  river. 
The  Skwentna  is  here  about  three  hundred  yards 
wide,  and  plunges  over  a  gravel  bed  at  the  rate  of 
eight  miles"  per  hour.  The  men  and  outfit  were 
quickly  ferried  over,  but  we  had  considerable 
trouble  in  swimming  the  horses.  One  unfortunate 
animal  was  carried  down-stream  five  miles,  and 
was  only  finally  secured  by  the  great  skill  and 
diligence  of  Printz;  but  the  animal  was  so  nearly 
exhausted  that  it  never  recovered  its  normal 
strength,  although  it  followed  us  to  Mt.  McKinley. 

The  course  taken  by  the  pack-train  from  the 
Skwentna  River  was  almost  due  north  twenty 
miles  over  swampy  spruce-timbered  country  to  the 
Kichatna  River  about  four  miles  above  its  mouth, 
and  to  this  point  it  was  also  necessary  to  take  the 
boat. 


CHAPTER  III 

Westward  Through  the  Alaska  Range  into 
the  kuskokwim 

THE  descent  of  the  Skwentna  River  was  im- 
mensely exciting.  In  less  than  two  hours  we 
rushed  over  fifteen  miles  of  foaming  rapids,  jump- 
ing boulders  and  snags  and  gravel  bars  with  a 
rush  that  made  us  hold  our  breaths.  In  ascending 
the  Yentna  we  discovered  that  the  river  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mt.  Yenlo  split  into  several  slews 
making  large  picturesque  islands.  To  study  this 
curious  distribution  of  river  waters  and  the  edge 
of  the  Alaska  Range  through  which  we  were 
about  to  seek  a  pass  we  ascended  Mt.  Yenlo 
or  Tahliktoh  as  the  Susitna  Indians  call  the 
mountain.  It  was  also  expected  that  from  here 
we  would  be  able  to  get  a  good  view  of  Mt.  McKin- 
ley  and  its  environments  from  the  south  and 
east. 

We  landed  on  the  east  side  of  the  Yentna  at  a 
point  where  the  main  river  is  nearest  the  southwest 
base  of  the  mountain.  After  making  camp  under 
birch  trees  we  left  Evan  to  guard  the  boat  from 
floating  driftwood  and  our  food  from  bears,  while 
Miller  and  Stephen  joined  me  in  the  first  alpine 


2  2     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

adventure.  A  broad  marshy  meadow  was  first 
crossed.  Here  we  sank  to  our  knees  in  pools  while 
the  brush  and  high  grass  made  progress  difficult 
and  slow.  In  the  centre  of  this  marsh  we  found  a 
chain  of  small  lakes  in  which  we  saw  salmon  trout 
darting  about.  On  the  surface  of  these  lakes  we 
were  surprised  to  find  pond  lilies  and  along  the 
edge  were  beautiful  yellow  and  purple  flowers. 
The  soft  green  verdure  and  the  warm  colours  of  the 
mountain  were  superbly  reflected  in  the  mercurial 
surface  of  the  water,  but  in  our  comforts  we  were 
not  in  harmony  with  the  deceptive  congeniality. 
The  water  was  just  above  the  freezing  point, 
we  were  saturated  to  the  skin  by  the  wet  grass, 
and  in  sinking  waist  deep  into  pools  we  had 
become  coated  with  mud.  Mosquitoes  in  clouds 
were  settling  upon  us,  and  the  normal  chill  of 
the  frigid  jungle  was  approaching  with  the  setting 
sun. 

In  trying  to  pick  the  most  promising  ground  we 
noticed  that  a  grizzly  had  been  through  there 
on  a  similar  mission.  We  followed  his  foot- 
prints and  soon  discovered  that  his  course  was 
good  enough  for  us.  We  argued  that  this  bear 
was  probably  aiming  for  the  blueberries  above 
tree  line,  or  the  ground  rats  at  the  top  of  Mt. 
Yenlo,  and  after  eating  bacon  and  beans,  as  we 
had  for  two  weeks,  we  were  ready  to  accept 
bear  diet  or  even  bear  steaks  as  a  delightful 
change. 

Miller  and  Stephen,  with  their  guns  always  ready, 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     23 

turned  their  eyes  expectantly  from  side  to  side, 
but  they  saw  only  the  fool-hens.  Bruin  had  good 
sense;  he  knew  where  the  ground  was  best,  and, 
better  still,  he  led  us  to  the  only  place  where  the 
lakes  could  be  crossed.  As  we  reached  the  base  of 
the  mountain  the  trail  was  lost  and  then  we  picked 
a  course  through  a  dense  forest  to  an  elevation  of 
two  thousand  eight  hundred  feet;  five  hundred 
feet  more  were  made  through  grass  five  feet  high, 
and  there  on  an  old  glacial  shelf  we  pitched  camp 
at  midnight. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  July  12th,  we  tumbled 
out  of  our  silk  tent,  and  with  a  few  roots  we  made 
a  fire  over  which  we  melted  some  snow  for  a  cup 
of  tea,  and  then,  over  steep  grassy  slopes,  we  made 
the  final  ascent  to  the  top.  From  here  we  had  a 
most  magnificent  view  of  the  easterly  slope  of  the 
Alaska  Range,  and  of  the  vast  expanse  of  fer- 
tile lowlands.  It  was  a  view  of  the  least  known 
but  probably  the  most  picturesque  area  of 
Alaska. 

Mt.  Yenlo  rises  out  of  a  wide  expanse  of  low 
marshy  country.  The  mountain  is  a  narrow  ridge 
running  north  and  south  with  several  peaks,  the 
highest  point  being  the  most  northern  one,  about 
five  thousand  feet.  Our  position  was  near  the 
centre  at  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  two  hun- 
dred feet. 

The  top  of  the  mountain  was  covered  with 
short  grass  and  some  moss.  The  blueberries  just 
under    the  crest  of  the  mountain  were  not  yet 


24     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

ripe.  Here  and  there  were  banks  of  winter 
snow  still  resting  in  sunless  places.  Hundreds  of 
ground  rats  were  darting  about,  and  when  there 
was  no  wind  we  were  tortured  greatly  with 
mosquitoes. 

The  grizzly  had  preceded  us  and  dug  out  many 
ground  rats  and  our  Indian  boy  followed  his 
haunts  with  visions  of  bear  steaks.  The  mosqui- 
toes were  so  troublesome  that  we  found  it  difficult 
to  manipulate  our  instruments,  but  soon  there 
came  a  breeze  out  of  the  long  blue  waters  of  Cook 
Inlet  which  swept  the  little  pests  from  our  im- 
mediate neighbourhood.  Taking  advantage  of  this 
little  puff  of  air  we  set  our  cameras,  levelled  our 
theodolite,  and  arranged  the  other  instruments 
for  a  round  of  observations.  These  observations 
when  worked  out  did  not  alter  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  remarkable  map  made  by  Brooks  and 
Reabum,  but  we  were  able  to  fill  in  several  blank 
spots. 

We  now  saw  that  the  Yentna  River  which  we  had 
ascended  divided  its  waters  between  the  Skwentna 
and  the  Kichatna  around  three  large  islands. 
These  islands  and  indeed  all  of  the  lowlands  looked 
like  carefully  cultured  parks.  There  were  belts 
of  high  spruce,  birch,  and  cottonwood  trees  along 
the  water  and  inside  of  this  dark  green  belt, 
usually  but  a  few  hundred  feet  wide,  was  a 
level  area  beautifully  covered  with  a  profuse 
growth  of  light-green  grass.  Circles  of  alders  and 
willows  and  small  lakes  covered  with  pond   lilies 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     25 

made  the  park-like  picture  complete.  No  city 
park  could  give  a  more  beautiful  and  carefully 
planned  artistic  effect  than  this  impenetrable 
wilderness  to  the  east  and  west  of  Mount  Yenlo. 
Our  position  was  high  and  far  enough  away  to 
prevent  a  critical  view,  for  in  reality  no  tropical 
jungles  could  be  more  dense  than  the  chaos  of 
underbrush  in  the  narrow  belt  of  forest.  The  beau- 
tiful light-green  meadows  were  marshes  over  which 
man  or  beast  could  only  travel  with  the  greatest 
difficulty.  Later  we  learned  to  our  hearts'  content 
that  this  enticing  landscape  so  beautiful  to  look 
upon  offered  us  the  tortures  of  countless  devils 
— mosquitoes,  horseflies,  gnats,  and  marshes,  thick 
underbrush,  icy  streams,  and  never-ceasing  rains 
all  combined  to  make  life  thoroughly  miserable 
for  us.  In  this  misery  we  lost  our  earlier  en- 
thusiasm for  the  birdseye  view  from  Mount 
Yenlo. 

Our  admiration  of  the  great  Bolshoy  group, 
which  as  seen  from  that  point  is  surely  the  most 
remarkable  range  in  North  America,  was  height- 
ened from  every  other  point  of  observation, 
though  we  did  not  again  get  so  comprehensive  a 
view.  Sixty  miles  northward  Mt.  Foraker,  a 
double  ridge,  acted  as  a  barrier  to  the  westerly 
drift  of  clouds.  A  little  to  the  eastward,  seventy- 
five  miles  away,  was  Mt.  McKinley,  a  huge  beehive 
loaded  down  with  prodigious  quantities  of  snow. 
East  of  Mt.  McKinley  we  saw  a  group  of  moun- 
tains  from   five  thousand  to  ten  thousand  feet 


a6    TO   line  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

hi^^h.  soparatod  l>y  deep  narrow  gorges.  Mt. 
Russell  is  a  sharp  ice-sheeted  pyramid  piercing 
the  sky  aVK)ut  seventeen  miles  south-west  of  Mt. 
I'\)raker.  About  twenty  miles  below  appeared 
Mt.  Dall,  also  a  jiyramid,  mostly  free  of  snow, 
with  the  rock  strata  clearly  marked  though  forty 
miles  away. 

Midway  between  Mt.  Dall  and  Mt.  Russell  we 
noticed  a  cluster  of  sharp  peaks  east  of  the  main 
range  with  an  average  height  of  about  eight 
thousand  feet.  These  I  have  named  Bryant 
Peaks  in  honour  of  my  friend  and  co-worker, 
Mr.  Henr}^  G.  Br^-ant,  Secretary  of  the  Alpine 
Club. 

The  Yentna  takes  its  head  waters  from  the 
glaciers  in  the  vicinity  of  Mt.  Dall,  Mt.  Russell, 
and  Bpy'ant  Peaks.  In  the  rolling  foothills  south- 
east of  Mt.  McKinley  we  noticed  a  depression 
which  we  afterwards  learned  was  the  bed  of  a 
large  glacial  stream,  which  flowing  easterly  and 
joining  the  streams  from  Ruth  glacier  empties 
into  the  Chulitna  River  above  the  lower  canyon. 
This  uncharted  river  is  called  by  the  Indians 
Tokositna. 

The  origin  of  the  Skwentna  River  was  easily 
seen  from  Mt.  Yenlo.  Out  of  the  high  icy  mount- 
ains west  of  Alger  Peak  and  north  of  Mt.  Estelle 
the  waters  descended;  uniting  with  those  of  the 
opi-)osite  side  they  pour  into  a  canyon;  but  a 
fe\v  miles  below,  the  waters  rush  out  and  spread 
over  a  wide  flat,   narrowing  again  to    a   second 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     27 

canyon  below.  The  Skwentna  is  about  eighty 
miles  long  and  three  hundred  feet  wide  near  its 
mouth,  and  is  navigable  with  dories  for  about 
forty  miles.  The  last  fifteen  miles  of  the  stream 
flows  through  a  low  country  to  the  Yentna.  There 
is  placer  gold  and  lignite  coal  found  along  this 
river. 

The  Kichatna,  taking  its  first  milky  waters  from 
Fleishmann  and  Caldwell  glaciers,  takes  a  course 
nearly  parallel  to  that  of  the  Skwentna,  through  a 
deep  gorge,  and  pours  over  a  succession  of  rapids 
almost  its  entire  course,  emptying  into  the  Yentna 
opposite  Mt.  Yenlo.  The  river  is  about  fifty  miles 
long  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide 
near  its  mouth;  navigable  with  dories  for  only 
about  ten  miles.  Gold  is  found  at  a  point  just 
beyond  navigation.  Up  the  valley  of  the  Kichatna 
we  saw  continuous  streams  of  great,  fluffy,  cumu- 
lus and  nimbus  clouds  drifting  through  the 
range  to  the  arctic  slopes  beyond.  To  follow 
these  clouds  with  our  dreams  of  mountaineering 
conquests  is  the  next  adventure. 

At  breakfast  we  ate  our  last  food.  We  expected 
to  get  to  the  river  for  lunch,  but  it  took  us  nearly 
all  day  to  get  to  the  section  of  the  mountain  neces- 
sary for  our  observations.  At  lunch  Stephen  got 
for  us  some  ground  rats,  saying  they  were  good 
for  white  men  but  not  for  Indians.  We  tried 
roasting  them  on  a  stick,  and  while  we  were  not 
enthusiastic  as  to  their  palatableness,  we  agreed 
that  rats  were  not  bad.     We  descended  in  about 


38     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

two  hours  and  found  E\'an  haunted  by  all  kinds 
of  spirits— saying  it  was  no  good  for  an  Indian 
to  be  left  alone. 

We  ascended  the  Kichatna  River  late  that 
niglit,  July  13th,  so  late  that  it  proved  too  dark  to 
fintl  a  camping  place.  It  was  a  welcome  sound 
when  at  eleven  o'clock  we  heard  voices  and  saw 
the  camp-fire  of  our  companions  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  river,  in  a  swamp  among  spruce  trees. 
On  the  following  morning  we  crossed  the  stream, 
and  found  a  better  camping  ground.  Dunn  re- 
ported much  difficulty  in  crossing  the  low,  wet 
country'.  The  horses  were  frequently  mired,  and 
both  men  and  horses  showed  signs  of  a  hard  time. 
After  a  day's  rest  the  horses  were  started  with 
light  packs  up-stream  along  the  soft  ground  of  the 
banks  and  over  many  slews  to  the  first  high  ground. 
The  boat,  with  an  increased  load,  followed.  Our 
camp  on  the  evening  of  the  15th  was  on  a  foothill 
about  ten  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  From 
here  our  Indians  were  sent  back.  They  were  good 
faithful  helpers,  and  we  would  gladly  have  taken 
them  farther,  but  they  were  eager  to  return  to 
their  fishing  grounds,  and  we  could  not  have 
carried  food  enough  for  them  had  they  continued 
with  us. 

Our  route  now  lay  westerly  along  the  Kichatna 
and  this  in  many  respects  proved  to  be  our  most 
difficult  trail.  Continued  rains,  thick  underbrush, 
rapid  streams,  and  difficult  slopes,  as  well  as  horse- 
flies and  mosquitoes,  all  combined  to  retard  pro- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     29 

gress.  Our  horses  soon  failed  in  strength  and  were 
so  sick  that  we  could  march  them  only  three  hours 
every  second  day.  Their  legs  were  very  much 
bruised  and  lacerated  by  the  brush,  their  skins 
so  badly  bitten  by  horse-flies  and  mosquitoes 
that  they  developed  a  kind  of  blood  poisoning. 
Our  packer  called  the  disease  distemper,  but  I  am 
inclined  to  ascribe  the  entire  trouble  to  direct 
poisoning  through  open  wounds.  A  somewhat 
similar  affection  is  commonly  known  among 
the  Indians  and  prospectors  who  are  much 
bitten. 

The  scenery  up  the  Kichatna  was  usually  hidden 
from  us  by  the  dense  forests  and  thick  clouds 
which  drifted  into  the  pass.  Occasionally  we  got 
a  glimpse  of  rounded  mountains,  three  thousand 
to  four  thousand  feet  high.  To  the  south  we 
observed  frequently  high  picturesque  peaks  in 
unexplored  areas.  We  longed  to  investigate  this 
region,  but  our  main  object  compelled  us  to  press 
onward.  As  we  rose  out  of  the  Kichatna  we  got 
a  glimpse  of  the  first  remarkable  scenery  at  close 
range — to  the  north,  a  great  brown  tongue  of  ice, 
Caldwell  Glacier,  nearly  two  miles  wide,  with  arms 
reaching  to  unknown  heights  between  steep,  snowy 
slopes.  The  water  which  comes  over,  under,  and 
through  this  glacier  with  a  mad  rush  gives  origin 
to  the  Kichatna  River.  Before  us  was  the  broad, 
green  depression,  with  black,  cloud-crested,  slaty 
peaks  to  both  sides,  six  thousand  feet  high.  This 
valley  leads  to  several  passes  through  the  Alaska 


.\o 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


Range— one  to  the  south,  which  Brooks  discov- 
ered; another  westerly  named  by  Lieutenant 
Heron,  Sinij^son  Pass;  and  there  is  probably  still 
another  between  the  two.  Before  entering  Simp- 
son Pass,  we  crossed  a  milky  stream,  which  came 
from  a  cavern  leading  to  Fleishmann  Glacier. 
This  glacier  in  size  and  surroundings  is  similar 
to  Caldwell  and  its  drainage  joins  the  same 
river. 

It  had  rained  almost  incessantly  from  the  time 
we  left  Tyonok.  The  men  were  always  soaked  to 
their  skins,  their  boots  were  continually  filled 
with  ice-water,  and  the  horses  were  wet  and 
bleeding  from  wounds,  but  in  spite  of  all  this 
we  slowly  pushed  our  pack  train  up  the  Kich- 
atna  into  the  divide  which  had  been  crossed 
by  Heron  and  Brooks,  camping  among  the 
Cottonwood  trees  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Kichatna. 

In  the  pouring  rain,  on  July  27th,  we  started  the 
pack  train  up  the  steep  treeless  slopes  over  which 
the  clouds  pressed  through  the  range.  It  was  an 
old  gathering  basin,  part  of  a  huge  ice  system 
which  once  filled  the  valley  of  the  Kichatna.  Blue- 
berries were  very  abundant  and  so  were  signs  of 
bears.  We  saw  one  as  we  got  well  into  the  mount- 
ains, and  we  quickly  had  visions  of  bear  steaks; 
but  the  bear  also  saw  us,  and  betook  himself  out 
of  range.  Moose,  caribou,  and  sheep  tracks  were 
abundant.  The  tracks  of  Heron's  pack  train 
where  it  crossed  here  five  years  previously  were 


INTO  THE  CHULITNA  CANYONS 


GUIDING  A  HORSB  ASHORE,  COOK  INLBT    ••* 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     31 

still  visible  and  also  those  of  Brooks's  horses.  We 
camped  at  an  altitude  of  about  four  thousand 
feet  along  the  northern  side  of  the  valley  one  mile 
east  of  Fleishmann  Glacier.  It  was  a  miserable 
camp  with  rain  and  snow  being  driven  by  violent 
gusts  of  wind,  and  with  only  small  green  willows 
to  burn,  but  the  pass  which  we  aimed  to  follow 
had  as  yet  not  been  located  and  we  did  not 
care  to  travel  through  the  frosty  mists  to  the  dan- 
gerous cliffs  and  overhanging  glaciers  as  we  broke 
through  the  range. 

During  the  brief  periods  of  clearing  we  saw  gaps 
through  the  range  and  the  deep  blue  of  the  Kus- 
kokwim  skies  beyond.  To  the  southward  was 
Brooks's  Rainy  Pass,  but  we  wanted  a  more 
northerly  route.  To  the  northward  there  was  a 
promising  gorge  but  this  proved  to  be  a  blind  pass 
leading  to  a  kind  of  ice-cap.  In  our  scouting 
about  we  saw  a  gap  north  of  Brooks  Pass  which 
offered  a  workable  route  but  in  seeking  Heron's 
trail  we  went  close  to  the  face  of  Fleishmann 
Glacier,  and  from  there  was  noted  a  deep  cut 
choked  with  clouds.  We  explored  this  and  found 
it  to  be  Simpson  Pass  for  which  we  had  been 
looking.  With  this  happy  news  we  returned  to 
our  shivering  colleagues  at  camp  and  ate  an 
extra  ration  of  bacon  and  beans  to  celebrate  our 
luck. 

Very  early  on  the  following  morning  we  gathered 
the  horses,  who  seemed  to  enjoy  the  frosty  air 
because   of   the   freedom   from   mosquitoes,    and 


•1  ■) 

0- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


packed  for  the  plunge  into  the  Kuskokwim.  We 
crossed  a  huge  ice  bridge  and  turned  sharply  to 
the  west  over  a  grassy  meadow  marking  the  divide, 
into  a  little  stream.  This  stream  was  hardly  more 
than  a  leaping  jet  of  spring  water,  but  its  volume 
increased  quickly.  Soon  we  descended  to  alders 
and  willows  of  moderate  size,  and  there  the  stream 
had  grown  to  a  vigorous  brook  and  plunged  into 
a  desperate  looking  canyon.  We  sought  a  trail 
over  the  walls  above  the  canyon  and  crossed  from 
side  to  side  as  required  by  the  slopes.  The  splen- 
did spruce  forests  of  the  Kuskokwim  were  seen 
soon  after  crossing  the  divide,  and  to  get  to  these 
was  our  day's  mission,  but  the  distance  was  de- 
ceptive; men  and  horses  tumbled  down  slopes 
all  that  day — until  almost  too  tired  to  move 
their  feet.  The  march  was  continued  for  fifteen 
hours  without  stopping  to  eat  lunch.  Late  at 
night  as  the  sun  was  gliding  northward  we  stum- 
bled into  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Rohn  River. 
It  was  a  deep  and  swift  glacial  stream,  but  just 
beyond  were  big  green  trees  and  on  the  steep 
grassy  slopes  above  hundreds  of  white  mountain 
sheep  were  seen  grazing  in  groups.  The  possibil- 
ity of  juicy  sheep  meat  made  us  forget  all  the  dis- 
comforts of  the  day. 

Our  camp  here  was  better  in  its  anticipation 
than  in  its  realisation.  After  various  kinds  of 
gun  luck  we  had  but  one  old  Winchester  in  working 
order,  and  it  did  not  shoot  straight  at  long  range. 
The  sheep  were  wise  enough  to  be  watchful  and 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     33 

no  meat  was  secured,  but  it  was  satisfactory  in  a 
way  just  to  see  them  wander  at  long  range,  over 
snow-streaked  mountains.  Moose  and  bear  tracks 
were  abundant  but  we  were  too  hard  pressed  for 
time  to  do  much  hunting.  In  the  low  country 
fool-hens,  ptarmigan,  rabbits,  and  squirrels  were 
abundant.  Food  for  the  horses  was  very  scarce  in 
this  region  near  the  Kuskokwim  and  the  horses  in 
consequence  greatly  failed  in  strength.  There 
was,  however,  one  great  redeeming  feature  in  the 
life  west  of  the  range — this  was  the  entire  absence 
of  horseflies  and  mosquitoes. 

Two  days'  march  brought  us  to  the  Kuskokwim 
River,  among  mountains  six  thousand  feet  high, 
appropriately  named,  because  of  their  colour.  Terra 
Cotta  Mountains.  Here  our  lot  was  unfortunate. 
The  horses  again  failed  because  of  the  scarcity 
of  grass,  and  worse  still,  John  Carroll,  who  had 
been  ailing  for  some  time,  found  that  he  could  no 
longer  keep  up  with  the  pack  train,  and  returned, 
taking  with  him  one  horse  to  carry  his  provisions. 
Our  party  now  consisted  of  five  men  and  thirteen 
horses;  the  horses  each  carrying  about  one  hund- 
red pounds. 

Just  ahead  of  us  at  this  time  was  Egypt  Mount- 
ain, a  pyramid  of  red  sandstone;  a  little  farther 
north,  Farewell  Mountain;  and  beyond  the  great 
green  expanse  the  spruce  covered  valley  of  the 
Kuskokwim .  Soon  after  passing  Egypt  we  bid  fare- 
well to  the  Kuskokwim,  and  set  a  course  above  the 
tree  hne  north-easterly  along  the  northern  slope  of 


^^4     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  Alaska  Range.  Here  the  grass  improved ;  blue- 
berries and  game  were  abundant.  Horses  and 
men  were  well  fed,  and  accordingly  rapid  pro- 
gress was  made. 


CHAPTER  IV 
Through  the  World's  Best  Big  Game  Country 

WE  NOW  entered  Nimrod's  dreamland.  To 
the  west  were  ten  thousand  square  miles 
of  unexplored  territory.  We  made  no  attempt  to 
press  into  this,  but  from  our  various  high  points 
of  outlook  we  could  see  that  it  was  a  low,  rolling, 
spruce-covered  country.  We  noted  that  the  south 
fork  of  the  Kuskokwim  drains  the  western  side  of 
the  Alaska  Range,  as  does  the  Yentna  from  the 
east.  Its  waters,  however,  descend  into  the  great 
sluggish  volume  of  the  lower  river  and  reach  the 
Bering  Sea,  by  a  broad,  dangerous  delta. 

Our  route  was  along  the  edge  of  this  timber, 
north-easterly  parallel  to  the  Alaska  Range  for 
several  hundred  miles.  To  the  east  there  was  a 
surprise  at  every  turn.  Range  after  range  of 
rounded  foothills  rose  to  beautiful  snowy  crests. 
Great  gorges  and  canyons  with  rushing  milky 
streams  led  to  the  tongues  of  unnamed  glaciers. 
Below  a  sub-arctic  forest  of  mystery  with  its  un- 
known small  life  and  fur-clad  animals;  above  the 
paradise  of  the  bear,  moose,  caribou,  and  sheep. 

We  had  now,  in  spite  of  various  trials  and  diffi- 
culties, gone  about  one  half  of  the  distance  to  Mt. 

35 


36    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENl 

McKinley.  In  an  air  line  this  distance  would 
probably  be  one  hundred  and  fifty  railes,  but  in 
reality  we  had  covered  more  than  three  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  over  the  worst  kind  of  trail  imaginable. 
Our  outfit  had  been  wet  constantly  and  our  food 
was  beginning  to  show  the  effects  of  the  bad 
weather  and  bad  treatment.  To  the  present  we 
had  secured  very  little  game.  Birds  and  fish,  it 
is  true,  were  abundant,  but  as  a  rule  we  had  not 
the  time  to  hunt  or  fish.  Our  hopes,  however, 
were  good,  for  now  we  were  about  to  enter  a  region 
where  the  signs  of  large  game  were  such  that  we 
must  stumble  over  fresh  meat. 

We  tiirned  our  backs  to  the  Kuskokwim,  with 
its  famine  of  grass,  to  the  great  evergreen  expanse 
beyond  Egypt  and  Farewell  mountains  on  the 
morning  of  August  2d.  An  icy  wind  followed  us, 
but  we  soon  entered  a  dense  forest.  At  noon  we 
broke  through  thick  brush  and  came  out  upon  the 
wide  flats  of  Jones  River.  Here  we  found  some 
grass,  and  though  we  had  made  but  a  short  march 
our  horses  were  too  hungry  to  travel  farther. 
This  camp  was  particularly  agreeable  to  both  men 
and  horses.  The  animals  had  their  first  good 
feed  for  several  days,  and  with  an  abundance  of 
blueberries  and  partridges  we  too  had  a  good  din- 
ner. In  exploring  above  camp  we  saw  game 
signs  everywhere,  but  as  yet  nothing  big  had  got- 
ten in  range  of  our  inefficient  gun. 

Rising  higher  and  closer  to  the  range  we  crossed 
several  dry,  barren  ridges,  and  descended  to  the 


SUSITNA   MOTHER  AND   CHILD 


THE  IMPRINT  OF  A  HARD  LIFE 
A  Kenai  squaw  said  to  be  more  than  loo  years  old 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     37 

southern  fork  of  the  DilHnger  River.  Here  we 
secured  a  young  brown  bear,  and  gloried  in  bear 
steaks,  bacon  and  beans,  and  delicious  brown  bis- 
cuits baked  in  the  reflector.  As  the  sun  sank  into 
the  burning  gold  of  the  Bering  Sea  that  night  we 
were  tired  but  enthusiastic  as  to  the  outcome  of 
our  undertaking. 

A  quantity  of  bear  meat  was  packed  as  we 
started  on  the  crisp  morning  of  August  5th.  The 
weather  since  crossing  the  range  was  much  better 
than  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains, 
though  a  few  clouds  were  still  pressing  from  the 
east  through  narrow  gaps  between  snow  peaks, 
and  these  poured  brief  but  severe  rain  showers 
over  us.  The  temperature  was  usually  about  50° 
and  the  humidity  increased  rapidly  as  we  went 
northward.  We  were  now  above  brush;  the 
ground  was  hard  but  the  land  became  more  and 
more  irregular  as  we  pressed  towards  the  Tonzona 
River.  Steep  climbs  and  disheartening  descents 
were  necessary  to  keep  to  a  good  general  north- 
easterly course. 

From  the  Jones  River  to  the  DilHnger  River 
we  crossed  a  very  irregular  country  over  the  de- 
pressions of  low  rolling  foothills  into  marshy  gul- 
lies. As  we  neared  the  DilHnger  we  passed  through 
a  beautiful  green  expanse,  spotted  by  many  small 
clear  lakes,  and  here  our  scent  for  game  became 
keener  than  ever.  Many  reported  sights  of  moose 
proved  to  be  illusions,  but  game  trails  crossed 
everywhere,  and  finally    as   the  pack  train  rose 


19'?'()i8 


v) 


S     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


over  a  mountain  Printz  hurriedly  came  back  to 
the  lead  horse  for  the  rifle  and,  while  men  and 
horses  reniained  motionless,  then  advanced  behind 
a  row  of  rocks.  There  were  four  or  five  shots  in 
rapid  succession  and  then  rising  to  spot  the  luck 
we  saw  that  a  big  biown  bear  had  fallen  and  we 
thought  him  dead,  yet  when  Printz  advanced 
knife  in  hand  to  get  his  skin  the  bear  quickly  picked 
himself  up  and  vanished  in  the  brush  where  we 
dared  not  follow. 

Our  camp  that  night  was  on  an  elevated  bench 
above  the  lakes.  Having  made  a  long  march  we 
were  too  tired  to  do  much  hunting,  but  we  watched 
the  shores  of  the  blue  lakes  with  a  hungry  interest. 
The  howl  of  the  wolf,  the  bark  of  the  foxes,  and 
the  giggle  of  the  fool-hens  and  ptarmigans  made 
the  night  air  ring  with  weird  noises  which  the 
horses  did  not  relish.  Our  route  during  the  next 
day  took  us  over  fresh  moose  trails  which  had  been 
trampled  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  below  the  level. 
We  had  lunch  in  a  big  patch  of  blueberries  at  the 
side  of  a  river  somewhat  larger  than  Jones  River. 
The  stream  rises  out  of  a  great  gap  through  the 
range  which  seemed  to  be  a  pass  for  the  moose 
and  caribou  to  the  east.  Taking  the  drainage  of 
the  many  small  lakes  it  flows  westerly,  emptying 
into  the  Kuskokwim  about  one  mile  north  of  the 
mouth  of  Jones  River. 

Rismg  out  of  the  Dillinger  we  saw  several  cari- 
bou and  tried  them  with  our  rifles,  but  they  only 
shook  their  heads  and  ran  gracefully  into  the  upper 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    39 

valleys.  Later  on,  however,  while  crossing  a 
nameless  stream  beyond  the  Dillinger,  we  saw  a 
pair  of  horns  winding  among  the  big  boulders  up- 
stream and  making  an  air  line  for  our  pack  train. 
No  one  would  take  the  gun  for  they  had  all  tried 
and  failed.  Printz  insisted  that  I  try  a  shot;  I 
did  so,  dropped  the  animal  and  thereby  established 
confidence  in  the  old  Winchester,  and  incidentally 
my  own  reputation  as  a  marksman  was  made. 
During  the  rest  of  the  trip,  with  new  confidence  in 
the  gun,  our  larder  was  kept  supplied,  but  I  did 
not  again  risk  my  reputation  as  a  shot. 

Over  mountains  ever  higher,  and  slopes  contin- 
uously more  difficult,  we  pressed  on  for  the  Ton- 
zona  River.  The  weather  was  clear  and  warm 
and  game  was  in  evidence  on  every  side,  but  now 
we  secured  it  with  such  ease  that  the  pack  train 
was  seldom  interrupted  in  its  march.  Above  us 
were  long  lines  of  white  sheep  moving  in  sunny 
patches  of  new  green  grass,  below  herds  of  caribou 
moving  up  the  banks  of  small  streams  for  the  new 
grass  m  the  uplands. 

Late  in  the  afternoon  of  August  8th,  we  rose 
to  a  saddle  at  an  altitude  of  about  five  thousand 
feet  and  from  this  place  we  saw  for  the  first  time, 
from  the  west,  the  distinctive  peaks  of  the  main 
range.  Mounts  Russell  and  Dall  were  easily  recog- 
nised from  the  score  of  lesser  peaks.  To  the  south 
of  Mt.  Dall  we  noted  several  wide  gaps  out  of 
which  pour  the  head  waters  of  the  Dillinger  and 
the  Tonzona  rivers.     Clouds  drifted  through  these 


40 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


gaps  as  they  did  through  Simpson  Pass  and  Brooks 
Pass.  There  seemed  to  be  signs  of  good  passes 
from  the  Tonzona  to  the  Yentna. 

As  the  sun  poured  its  parting  rays  on  the  shining 
spires  of  Mt.  Russell  we  rose  to  a  dome-shaped 
mountain  and  beyond  saw  for  the  first  time  the 
broad  expanse  of  the  gravel  bars  of  the  Tonzona. 
The  great  low  cuts  through  the  mountains,  making 
a  canal  for  the  clouds  from  the  east,  were  now  seen 
to  better  advantage.  Beyond  the  Tonzona  was 
an  easy  rise  to  a  table-land  and  along  the  edge  of 
this  were  huge  boulders  giving  the  impression  of 
the  houses  of  a  big  city.  This  table-land  was  the 
shelf  of  an  old  glacier  which  extends  to  and  be- 
yond Mt.  McKinley.  We  descended  very  quickly 
along  a  steep  slope  winding  around  cliffs  into  a 
small  stream  which  led  us  into  the  big  cottonwood 
and  spruce  forests,  to  the  side  of  the  Tonzona. 
From  this  camp  we  saw  our  first  moose.  It 
crossed  the  stream  near  camp  and  rising  to  a  green 
hummock  within  a  few  hundred  yards  above  us 
from  there  looked  down  upon  the  stir  of  horses 
and  men  with  evident  curiosity.  We  did  not  need 
meat  and  could  not  carry  his  great  spread  of  horns 
as  a  specimen,  and  therefore  the  animal  was  not 
molested. 

East  of  the  range  the  camp  life  was  a  torture. 
Continual  rains,  hungry  mosquitoes,  dense  wet 
brush,  and  frequent  icy  fords  made  our  daily  ad- 
ventures so  difficult  that  we  had  neither  the  time 
nor  the  disposition  to  dwell  on  the  few  pleasant 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     41 

phases  of  the  boundless  wilderness  through  which 
we  forced  a  trail.  But  along  the  northern  foothills 
all  this  changed.  The  weather  was  good,  the  mos- 
quitoes were  absent,  the  whole  aspect  of  life  was 
better,  and  with  all  this  was  the  happy  environment 
of  a  new  world  of  big,  wild  animals  roaming  about 
undisturbed  by  man. 

In  this  northland,  where  dusk  and  dawn  run 
together,  men  get  into  the  real  swing  of  nature 
and  close  to  each  other's  hearts  at  the  camp-fire. 
There  is  something  about  the  crackle  of  the  fire, 
the  inspiration  of  the  blaze,  and  the  long  frosty 
nights  of  twilight,  which  bares  the  breast  of  each 
camper  to  the  scrutiny  of  his  companions.  At  the 
club  a  man  may  be  a  good  fellow  superficially,  with 
the  veneer  of  a  make-believe  spirit  of  human 
brotherhood  over  a  selfish  centre  of  commonplace 
discord,  but  in  the  sub-arctic  wilderness  this  is 
impossible.  Naked  manliness  under  togs  that 
are  stripped  and  dried  at  the  evening  round-up 
with  the  aroma  of  the  spruce  and  the  music  of  the 
forest  wilds,  is  the  ultimate  necessity  of  every  adept. 

If  a  man  has  been  an  artist,  with  system  and 
order  in  the  daily  routine  of  his  home  life,  he  is  sure 
to  get  a  large  measure  of  admiration  from  his  com- 
rades, for  he  gathers  and  disseminates  bits  of  light 
that  dispel  the  fatigue  of  the  hard  day's  trail;  but 
the  haphazard  chap  who  has  run  the  life  of  a  liter- 
ary hack  bewails  his  misfortunes,  makes  copy, 
secretes  his  observations  of  interesting  things,  and 
makes  life  tiresome  by  his  egotism.     As  a  discloser 


42     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

of   manly  character  the  camp-fire  surpasses  the 
confession  booth. 

On  the  morning  of  August  9th,  we  packed  the 
decreasing  loads  on  the  horses  and  cut  trail  through 
a  wide  belt  of  large  trees.  The  Tonzona  was  here 
divided  into  a  number  of  rushing  streams.  For 
each  crossing  it  was  necessary  to  mount  the  horses, 
and  we  had  become  quite  expert  at  this  kind  of 
fording.  All  our  things  were  packed  in  water- 
proof bags,  and  when  about  to  ford  we  would  make 
a  running  jump,  alighting  behind  the  packs.  If 
the  prospective  ford  proved  a  swim,  as  was  often 
the  case,  we  held  to  the  pack  ropes  as  best  we  could. 
In  crossing  the  coffee-coloured  waters  of  the  Ton- 
zona two  streams  were  found  to  be  ver}^  deep,  and 
at  one  of  these,  after  losing  considerable  time  seek- 
ing a  place  to  ford,  we  at  last  plunged  in  for  a  swim. 
Men  and  horses  were  carried  down -stream  a  long 
way.  Two  animals  turned  over  in  midstream 
and  their  riders  struck  out  for  the  shore,  leaving 
the  horses  to  follow.  It  was  a  warm,  sunny  day, 
but  this  swim  in  glacial  waters  made  us  feel  like 
travellers  en  route  to  the  Pole. 

With  garments  soaked  to  our  skins  and  with 
shoes  full  ot  water  we  continued  the  march.  There 
was  not  time  to  change,  nor  had  we  the  extra  cloth- 
ing, for  these  fords  were  so  frequent  that  being  wet 
was  by  this  time  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  game 
of  getting  to  Mt.  McKinley.  Indeed  we  had 
adapted  ourselves  to  this  semi-aquatic  S3^stem  of 
travelling.     We   wore  no   hats,    only   very   light 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     43 

clothing,  and  short  shoe  packs.  After  a  swim 
we  shook  ourselves  and.  hurried  along  to  warm 
up  and  dry  out  by  the  increased  action  of  the 
march.  Men  will  get  used  to  this  kind  of  life  after 
awhile  and  enjoy  it,  but  in  the  schooling  one  hears 
a  great  deal  of  sulphurous  language. 

Climbing  out  of  the  Tonzona  we  rose  about  two 
thousand  feet  over  the  edge  of  an  old  moraine 
among  giant  boulders.  Here  were  extensive 
patches  of  large,  delicious  blueberries  and  also 
bright  green  spots  of  new  grass.  Men  and  horses 
with  equal  zest  bent  to  the  fruits  of  the  soil.  After 
half  an  hour  the  horses  were  rounded  up  and 
with  grunts  of  mingled  satisfaction  and  protest 
the  ascent  was  continued  to  the  great  treeless  plain 
above.  On  this  grassy  expanse,  looking  over  the 
numerous  lakes  of  the  lower  plains,  we  saw  many 
caribou,  feeding  with  the  contentment  of  cattle 
on  our  Western  prairies. 

To  get  to  moose,  caribou,  or  mountain  sheep  was 
now  only  a  matter  of  shifting  the  line  of  march. 
The  best  and  most  direct  travelling  was  over  this 
glacial  shelf  at  heights  between  three  and  four 
thousand  feet.  Travelling  thus,  caribou  were 
sufficiently  abundant  to  supply  our  larder  without 
interrupting  the  long  marches.  In  descending 
to  the  timber  line  along  the  head-waters  of  the 
streams  we  saw  moose.  When  making  a  cut  be- 
hind the  first  foothills  we  saw  great  bands  of  mount- 
ain sheep,  while  everywhere  there  were  fresh  signs 
of  bear.     Here,  wandering  with  primeval  freedom, 


44      TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

were  the  largest  of  the  big  game  animals.  Surely, 
it  is  the  finest  game  preserve  in  all  the  world. 

It  Ixjhooves  us  to  protect  these  splendid  animals 
against  the  cruel  slaughter  which  blots  the  history 
of  wild  life  in  the  past  decade.  Game  preservation 
is  too  long  a  subject  to  take  up  here,  but  my  ad- 
miration for  the  noble  creatures  that  run  to  un- 
troubled joys  along  the  west  of  this  range  impels  a 
word  of  caution.  Some  game  law  must  be  framed 
for  this  undisturbed  wilderness  will  soon  be  spotted 
with  the  blood  of  innocent  creatures  to  satisfy  the 
murderous  lust  of  man's  instinct  to  kill.  The  pre- 
sent game  laws  of  Alaska  are  a  farce  in  their  effect. 
They  favour  the  Indian  and  the  prospector  but 
permit  the  wholesale  extermination  of  the  game. 
The  only  result  of  this  law  is  to  keep  big  game 
hunters  out  of  that  territory  and  to  make  a  closed 
field  for  the  Indian  and  the  prospector  to  slaughter 
at  will. 

There  is  room  for  a  good  deal  of  discussion  on 
the  relative  merits  of  allowing  special  privileges 
to  the  Indian,  the  prospector,  or  the  nimrod.  The 
spirit  of  the  law  and  the  generally  accepted  theory 
is  to  curb  the  outside  hunter  and  allow  the  native 
a  free  hand  with  minor  restrictions.  This  theory 
in  Alaska  is  a  misfit.  The  Indian  about  Cook 
Inlet  and  the  Alaska  Range  is  to-day,  and  always 
has  been,  a  fish  eater.  He  secures  his  yearly  sup- 
ply of  salmon  with  such  ease  and  despatch  that 
for  his  own  use  he  does  not  seriously  trouble  the 
game.     It  is  only  since  the  advent  of  the  white 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     45 

man  with  rapid-fire  guns  and  a  market  for  skins 
that  he  has  taken  to  the  hunt  of  big  game.  The 
ultimate  object  of  this  chase  is  easily  gotten  rev- 
enue, not  meat.  The  prospector  with  a  privilege 
paramount  to  that  of  the  Indian  is  not  more  worthy 
of  free  meat.  I  admire  the  brave  type  of  manhood 
displayed  by  the  prospector  in  his  quest  for  gold 
in  the  difficult  northlands,  but  he  follows  his  calling 
with  a  purely  selfish  lust  for  gold.  Wealth  secured, 
he  goes  to  other  climes  to  spend  it.  Is  it  not 
enough  that  Alaska  should  allow  him  to  carry 
away  its  mineral  riches?  Why  should  he  have 
a  free  entrance  to  nature's  larder  ? 

Now  as  to  the  nimrod,  let  us  examine  his  claim 
to  consideration.  He  starts  on  an  expedition 
which,  physically,  is  much  like  that  of  the  gold 
digger,  but  he  does  it  on  a  larger  scale.  He  hires 
a  corps  of  men,  takes  a  large  outfit,  spends  thou- 
sands of  dollars,  not  to  kill,  as  is  the  common  im- 
pression, but  to  enjoy  wild  life  at  its  best.  His 
return  is  a  trophy  for  two,  a  collection  of  pictures, 
and  a  note-book  full  of  memoranda,  all  of  which 
is  a  permanent  record  of  use  to  future  generations. 
The  nimrod' s  claim  to  consideration  is  at  least  as 
good  as  that  of  the  Indian  and  prospector,  and  the 
law  in  my  judgment  should  be  so  reconstructed. 

There  is  another  phase  to  this  subject  from  the 
standpoint  of  real  and  not  fancied  protection. 
The  hunter  is  a  lover  of  animal  life,  his  destruction 
is  limited  to  a  few  males  with  large  heads,  which 
does  not  seriously  affect  reproduction;  while  the 


40     TO  THE  TUP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Indian  and  the  ])rospector  slaughter  indiscrim- 
inatel}',  females  and  young,  and  all  living  things. 
Furthermore  the  hunter  is  usually  an  explorer, 
making  contributions  to  the  annals  of  natural 
history  and  geography.  His  eye  is  trained  to  use- 
ful observations  and  the  results  of  his  adventures 
are  published.  Publicity  is  the  best  remedy  for 
any  abuses  and  where  the  hunter  enters  the 
gross  infraction  of  game  laws  cannot  remain  a 
guarded  secret  as  it  is  in  Alaska  to-day. 

The  present  law  prohibits  the  exportation  of 
heads  and  skins.  The  hunting  season  is  limited 
and  the  number  of  animals  allowed  each  individual 
is  stated.  Professional  hunters  are  absolutely 
barred  by  the  first  provision,  and  so  far  the  law 
is  a  success.  But  the  exclusion  of  the  friend  of 
the  game  animals  makes  the  lot  easy  for  the  local 
destroyers.  Near  the  head  waters  of  the  Skwentna 
River  there  are  thousands  of  square  feet  covered 
with  moose  hair  to  the  depth  of  three  feet.  Here 
Indians  have  massacred  hundreds  of  moose  in  the 
deep  snows,  taking  only  the  skins  for  souvenir 
moccasins,  leaving  heaps  of  heads  and  tons  of 
meat  to  rot.  Kenai  Peninsula,  right  under  the 
eye  of  men  paid  to  enforce  the  law,  is  a  brilliant 
example  of  the  working  of  the  present  law.  Moose 
and  sheep  meat  is  everywhere  exposed  for  sale 
at  all  times  of  the  year,  and  all  over  the  Peninsula 
one  finds  many  magnificent  heads  strewn  about  in 
the  wilderness.  At  Seattle,  Wash.,  Alaska  game 
heads  are  on  sale  at  reduced  prices.     These  heads 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     47 

I  suppose  were  transported  by  aerial  navigation, 
for  the  steamship  companies  rigidly  exclude  heads 
from  returning  freight. 

It  would  seem  reasonable  that  the  best  way  to 
prevent  the  present  wanton  destruction  of  game 
in  territory  bordering  on  Mt.  McKinley  should  be  a 
law  which  would  be  fair  to  all — a  law  providing  for 
a  short  open  season,  prohibiting  the  destruction 
of  females  and  their  young,  and  allowing  the 
hunter  to  take  out  his  heads.  A  very  high  license 
should  be  charged  and  efficient  game  wardens 
should  be  kept  in  the  field.  The  Indians  and  the 
prospectors,  the  greatest  enemies  to  the  game, 
should  be  carefully  watched,  for  if  these  are 
allowed  to  shoot  every  moving  thing  as  they  do 
now,  any  law,  however  well  its  framing  is  in 
theory,  in  practice  must  prove  a  farce. 


CHAPTER  V 

Up  the  Slopes   of  Mt.  McKinley   from   the 
South-West. — The  First  Defeat 

WITH  an  abundance  of  fresh  meat  for  the 
men  and  good  grass  for  the  horses  and 
a  great  undulating  treeless  country  before  us, 
long  marches  were  possible.  On  the  evening  of 
August  nth,  we  rose  to  a  bluff  as  the  setting  sun 
softened  the  great  waving  sea  of  evergreen  forests, 
extending  into  the  unknown  world  of  the  Kuskok- 
wim.  Along  our  line  of  march  the  land  now 
became  much  more  irregular.  The  glacial  rivers 
as  we  neared  the  big  mountains  increased  in 
numbers  and  size,  and  the  tree  line  ascended 
somewhat  higher  along  the  streams  into  the 
foothills.  Heron  Glacier  was  noted  just  below, 
pouring  huge  quantities  of  ice  and  rock  and 
water  out  of  the  great  gold-fringed  clouds  which 
hung  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mt.  Foraker,  while 
its  three  peaks  of  ice  were  softened  by  a  warm 
afterglow.  From  points  near  here  we  got  the 
first  glimpse  of  the  top  of  Mt.  McKinley.  Its 
contour  was  a  surprise  to  us  for  it  indicated  a 
double  system  of  peaks  not  shown  from  the 
east  or  the  west.     We  could  see  only  the  upper 

48 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     49 

four  thousand  feet  over  the  ice-crested  shoulder 
of  Mt.  Foraker,  a  double  system  of  gable  roofs 
placed  side  by  side  with  the  eastern  apex  slightly 
higher.  The  slopes  were  shingled  by  plates  of 
ice  which  were  continuous  with  the  surface  of  a 
glacier  carrying  the  drainage  down  from  the 
median  depression.  Here  was  the  roof  of  the 
continent;  the  prize  of  our  conquest,  seemingly 
within  grasp,  and  our  ambition,  cooled  by  fifty- 
one  days  of  wet  feet,  warmed  to  a  new  enthusiasm. 

We  pitched  camp  on  the  side  of  the  vigorous 
stream  which  rushes  out  of  the  grottos  of  Heron 
Glacier.  Through  the  waving  leaves  of  the  big 
Cottonwood  trees  we  watched  the  veiling  and 
unveiling  of  the  polished  cliffs  of  Mt.  Foraker, 
with  its  awe-inspiring  cornices  chiselled  in  graceful 
curves  of  alabaster.  As  the  beans  boiled  and  the 
aroma  of  the  bacon  and  fresh  bread  drifted  with 
the  chill  of  twilight  the  echoes  of  the  explosive 
noises  of  Heron  Glacier  sent  a  thrill  of  the  arctic 
battlefield  to  our  hearts. 

A  march  of  three  days  over  whaleback  ridges 
ploughed  by  vanished  glaciers,  took  us  to  a  point 
on  a  tributary  of  the  Tatlathna  River,  about 
fourteen  miles  north-west  of  the  crest  of  Mt. 
McKinley.  Our  camp  was  placed  beside  a  foaming 
stream  at  an  altitude  of  twenty-six  hundred  feet, 
along  the  edge  of  the  last  willows.  A  mile  below 
we  noted  the  zigzag  of  the  upper  line  of  the 
spruce  forest  which  we  had  skirted  for  two  hundred 
miles.     To  the  east  a  succession  of  glacial  benches 


50    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

rose  gradually  for  about  five  miles  to  an  altitude 
of  four  thousand  feet  and  there  began  the  sharp 
p)Tajnidal  foothills  which  are  characteristic  of 
this  area.  In  wandering  about  the  camp  we  saw  a 
great  deal  of  interesting  life;  mosquitoes  and  flies 
were  absent,  but  bumble  bees  attacked  us  several 
tinies.  There  were  squirrels  and  marmots,  and 
the  bears  were  so  numerous  that  we  never  felt 
safe  without  firearms  at  hand.  An  occasional 
wolf- track  was  seen  and  one  wolf  was  bold  enough 
to  come  right  into  our  camp.  Caribou  grazed 
about  like  domestic  cattle,  and  moose  were  always 
expected  in  the  willows.  Mountain  sheep  were 
more  common  in  the  regions  north-east  and  south- 
west of  Mt.  McKinley.  Perhaps  the  most  re- 
markable bit  of  life  we  saw  here  was  a  family  of 
black  foxes  following  us  at  long  range  like  dogs, 
and  retreating  to  their  earth  mounds  when  we  took 
up  the  chase. 

While  here  a  violent  storm  swept  our  camp  and 
we  were  kept  rather  busy  in  holding  up  the  tents 
and  nursing  a  willow  fire.  The  stream  rose  with 
alarming  swiftness.  Our  tents  were  on  a  fiat 
not  more  than  three  feet  above  the  foaming 
stream.  When  we  turned  into  our  sleeping  bags 
that  night  we  felt  anxious  about  that  rising 
stream.  Shainwald  had  such  premonitions  of  a 
coming  flood  that  he  devised  a  safety  signal. 
Placing  a  small  log  at  a  point  near  our  level  he 
attached  to  it  a  rope  and  this  rope  was  taken 
in  his  tent  and  fastened  to  his  toe.     The  wind 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     51 

blew  violently  that  night  and  the  rain  poured 
down  in  torrents.  Just  before  dawn  Shainwald 
felt  a  jerk  at  his  toe.  He  quickly  called  all,  but 
we  were  already  lying  in  pools  and  when  we 
arose  we  stumbled  into  cold  water.  There 
was  no  great  danger  at  this  time  but  in  the  haste 
and  bustle  of  moving  camp  to  higher  ground  we 
were  thoroughly  awakened. 

Our  position  was  particularly  favourable  for  a 
promising  attack  upon  the  south-west  ridge  of 
the  big  mountain.  Before  beginning  the  climb 
we  decided  to  spend  two  days  in  rest  and  final 
preparation. 

In  fifty-four  days  we  had  marched  a  tortuous 
course  of  five  hundred  miles  through  swamps  and 
forests,  over  glacial  streams,  up  and  down  mount- 
ain sides,  through  a  trackless  country.  We  had 
travelled  afoot  while  the  horses  carried  our 
supplies.  In  this  march  we  had  hoped  to  get  to 
the  mountain  by  the  first  of  August,  but  had 
been  delayed  a  great  deal  through  the  illness  of 
the  horses  during  the  early  part  of  the  trip.  The 
season  was  now  advancing  rapidly;  storms  were 
beginning  to  pour  down  from  Mt.  McKinley  with 
a  great  deal  of  rain;  the  temperature  ranged  from 
45°  to  60°  F.  and  the  glacial  streams  were  much 
swollen.  Still,  our  position  seemed  so  favourable, 
and  the  ascent  of  the  mountain  appeared  so  easy 
from  our  point  of  observation,  that  we  felt  certain 
of  reaching  the  summit  within  a  few  days. 

Our  days  of  rest  were  spent  in  making  final  pre- 


52     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

parations  for  the  alpine  work.  We  had  carried 
with  us  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hard  biscuits  for  the 
mountain  ascent,  but  these  biscuits  had  been  so 
nuich  in  water  and  were  so  often  crushed  by 
accidents  to  the  pack  horses  that  they  were 
worthless.  We  were  now  compelled  to  devise 
some  kind  of  bread  for  the  high  altitude,  because 
there  bread  could  not  be  baked.  It  occurred  to 
me  that  we  might  bake  our  bread  in  the  usual 
way  with  the  tin  reflector,  and  then  toast  and  dry 
it,  after  the  manner  of  zweiback.  For  this 
purpose  I  detailed  Dunn  and  Miller  to  go  down 
the  river  a  few  miles  where  they  could  procure 
spruce  wood,  and  within  twenty-four  hours  they 
had  successfully  baked  sufficient  bread,  and 
toasted  and  dried  it  thoroughly  for  mountain  work. 
This  I  think  is  a  new  thing  in  mountaineering 
and  it  certainly  proved  excellent  for  our  purposes. 
Out  mountaineering  equipment  was  very  simple 
and  extremely  light.  As  food  for  each  man  we  al- 
lowed pemmican,  ij  pounds  per  day;  zweiback, 
4  oz.  per  day;  sweetened  condensed  milk,  4  oz.  per 
day;  and  some  tea.  We  had  also  a  small  quantity 
of  cheese  and  erbswurst;  both  of  these,  however, 
proved  unsatisfactory.  Pemmican,  bread,  tea,  and 
sweetened  condensed  milk  seemed  to  satisfy  all 
our  wants.  For  fuel  we  had  wood  alcohol  to  be 
burned  in  aluminum  stoves,  and  also  petroleum 
to  be  burned  in  a  Primus  stove.  The  latter  proved 
by  far  the  more  successful.  We  carried  no  dishes 
except  a  few  cups,  spoons,  pocket  knives,  and  one 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     53 

kettle,  in  which  we  melted  snow  to  get  water 
for  our  tea. 

There  was  nothing  unusual  about  our  clothes, 
except  a  large  eider-down  robe  (the  down  adhering 
to  the  skin  of  the  birds) .  The  robe  was  so  arranged 
that  it  could  be  made  into  either  a  sleeping  bag 
or  an  overcoat.  Our  tent  was  made  of  silk,  after 
a  special  pattern  which  I  devised  for  polar  work. 
It  was  large  enough  for  three  men  and  weighed 
three  pounds.  Each  man  carried  a  regular  alpine 
axe,  and  in  his  rucksack  he  was  to  carry  his 
sleeping-bag,  glacier  rope  made  of  horsehair, 
provisions,  and  a  general  outfit  for  a  ten  days' 
stay  in  the  mountains.  This  weighed  forty 
pounds. 

Mt.  McKinley  presented  a  formidable  face  from 
our  camp.  The  upper  ten  thousand  feet  were, 
during  the  day,  usually  wrapped  in  dark  clouds. 
The  best  view  was  obtained  when  the  sun  was 
lowest,  and  by  far  the  most  impressive  view  was 
during  the  long  hours  of  the  blue  twilight.  In 
the  bright  light  the  mountain  seemed  dwarfed. 
The  foothills,  the  glacial  depressions,  and  the 
striking  irregularities  were  then  run  together  into 
a  great  heap  of  mingled  snow  and  rock,  but  the 
feebler  play  of  light  at  dawn  and  sunset  brought 
out  all  of  the  sharp  edges,  the  great  cliffs,  the 
depressions,  the  lesser  peaks,  and  the  difficult 
slopes.  To  the  north-east  there  was  a  long  ridge 
with  a  gradual  ascent,  but  this  ridge  seemed 
impossible  as  a  route  to  the  summit  because  of 


54     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

several  lesser  peaks,  which  appeared  to  bar  the 
way.  To  the  south-west  there  was  a  more  promis- 
ing ridge,  also  interrupted  by  a  spur,  which 
however  we  hoped  to  get  around.  The  western 
face  of  the  great  peak  between  these  ridges,  above 
twelve  thousand  feet,  was  an  almost  uninterrupted 
cliff  of  pink  granite,  so  steep  that  snow  could  not 
rest  upon  it.  Hence  the  only  way  to  the  summit 
from  the  west  as  we  understood  it  at  that  time 
was  along  the  south-westerly  ridge. 

Aiming  for  this  ridge,  we  moved  our  entire  camp 
with  the  horses  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  river 
to  a  point  on  the  main  stream  w^here  it  came  from 
a  huge  moraine.  Crossing  here,  we  ascended  into 
a  narrow  valley  four  thousand  feet,  and  there 
pitched  our  camp.  Here  the  grass  was  abundant, 
and  the  outlook  for  an  easy  ascent  was  good,  but 
the  rain  came  down  incessantly.  On  the  following 
day,  with  five  horses,  the  entire  party  pushed 
over  a  series  of  moraines  to  a  glacier  which  started 
from  an  amphitheatre.  The  ice  travelling  was 
quite  difficult  for  the  horses;  deep  snow  and 
numerous  crevasses  made  the  task  tedious  and 
very  dangerous.  We  pitched  our  camp  at  an 
altitude  of  seven  thousand  three  hundred  feet 
on  the  glacier  near  a  part  of  the  wall  of  the 
amphitheatre  to  the  south-west,  the  only  place 
where  the  slope  permitted  an  ascent.  During 
the  night  a  great  deal  of  snow  fell,  and  on  the 
following  morning  we  left  our  horses,  and  in  the 
snowstorm  ascended  this  slope  to  eight  thousand 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     55 

three  hundred  feet,  only  to  find  that  farther 
progress  was  absolutely  cut  off  by  a  chasm  the 
cliffs  of  which  we  afterward  learned  led  down  with 
a  sheer  drop  of  two  thousand  feet  into  the  bed 
of  Peters  Glacier.  The  horses  were  sent  to  the 
last  camp  while  we  remained  on  the  glacier  another 
night,  and  explored  the  area  for  a  route  out  of 
the  gathering  basin;  but  the  only  outlet  was 
toward  Mt.  Foraker. 

Defeat  for  our  first  attempt  was  now  evident. 
There  was  no  way  over  the  gap  in  the  shoulder  upon 
which  we  had  risen.  We  were,  however,  able  from 
here  to  get  an  occasional  peep  between  the  clouds 
into  a  new  world  of  great  action  and  sublime  beau- 
ty. The  remarkable  glacier  on  which  we  camped 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  first  of  a  series  of 
interesting  discoveries.  Its  gathering  basin  was  a 
crescent  in  shape,  about  five  miles  wide,  and  walled 
by  frowning  cliffs  from  two  thousand  to  three 
thousand  feet  high.  Small  overhanging  glaciers 
and  never  ceasing  streams  of  avalanches  carried 
the  condensation  down  from  above  while  a  con- 
stant train  of  clouds  descended  into  the  gap, 
dropping  cargoes  of  snow.  Thus  the  output  of  the 
glacier  was  continuously  augmented.  The  stream 
was  about  seven  miles  long.  By  right  of  explora- 
tion to  us  fell  the  privilege  of  assigning  a  name, 
and  accordingly  we  inscribed  in  honour  of  our 
colleague  "Shainwald  Glacier." 

Rising  over  a  low  divide  out  of  Shainwald 
Glacier   toward  Mt.   Foraker  we  saw  two  other 


q6     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

glaciers  with  streams  about  one  mile  wide  running 
parallel  to  each  other.  The  first  came  from  a  sys- 
tem of  snowfields  from  the  Mt.  McKinley  slopes. 
The  second  came  from  an  amphitheatre  of  Mt. 
Foraker.  Both  these  glaciers  had  large  quantities 
of  black  moraine  uniformly  strewn  over  them. 
This  moraine  we  believed  to  be  slate,  therefore 
differing  from  the  northern  glaciers  where  the 
moraine  was  granite.  These  glaciers  from  above 
appeared  to  offer  good  routes  for  an  attack  upon 
either  mountain,  but  we  had  not  with  us  sufficient 
supplies  to  prolong  the  siege  over  a  circuitous 
route.  We  therefore  descended  out  of  a  region  of 
perennial  snows  into  one  of  perpetual  rains  at 
four  thousand  feet.  The  base  camp  was  quickly 
taken  down  and  packed  and  then  we  started  for 
the  golden  lowlands  where  the  sun  was  seen  to 
shine  as  we  looked  between  the  clouds.  Rising  to  a 
commanding  foothill  southward  we  were  able  to 
see  that  there  would  be  great  difficulties  in  rising 
out  of  the  lower  country  to  the  glaciers  that  looked 
promising  from  above,  so  we  now  decided  that 
the  few  remaining  days  of  the  closing  season  would 
be  better  spent  by  an  ascent  over  the  ice  of 
Hanna  Glacier. 

In  this  sudden  descent  from  eight  thousand 
feet  to  three  thousand  feet  we  noted  a  languid, 
feverish  feeling,  a  weakening  as  if  convalescent 
from  a  serious  illness.  We  soon  learned  to  accept 
this  descent  of  spirits  with  the  descent  of  slopes 
as  an  aftermath  of  every  climb. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Against  the  Western  Face  of  Mt.  McKinley. 
— ^The  Second  Defeat 

IN  SHIFTING  camp  twenty-five  miles  from  a 
line  at  right  angles  to  the  south-west  of  the 
base  to  a  similar  line  to  the  north-west  base  we  spent 
two  pleasant  days  in  travel  and  exploration.  This 
march  over  a  rolling  treeless  country  gave  us  time 
and  opportunity  to  study  the  face  of  the  great 
mountain.  Looking  at  the  peak  in  the  light  of  our 
first  experience  the  magnitude  of  our  task  was 
more  and  more  impressed  upon  us.  Making  a 
camp  in  the  edge  of  the  last  spruce,  within  a  mile 
of  the  moraine  of  Hanna  Glacier,  at  an  altitude 
of  three  thousand  feet,  we  made  preparations  for 
our  next  assault  upon  the  ice-armoured  slopes. 

Mt.  McKinley  as  seen  from  this  camp  presents 
a  stupendous  sheen  of  granite  cliffs  and  ice- walls 
The  foothills  rise  out  of  an  old  glacial  shelf  at  four 
thousand  feet  elevation,  and  about  ten  miles  from 
the  crest  of  the  saddle  which  makes  the  double 
peak  of  the  west.  The  first  hills  are  rounded  by 
glaciation,  but  these  are  quickly  succeeded  by  a 
few  pyramidal  peaks  scraping  the  lower  clouds 
at   six   thousand   feet.     These   foothills   lead   to 

57 


58     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Roosevelt  Ridge,  which  extends  along  nearly  the 
whole  western  face  of  the  main  mountain  and  is 
separated  from  it  by  Hanna  Glacier.  Ordinarily 
tlie  clouds  sweep  the  slopes  from  six  thousand  to 
twelve  thousand  feet,  and  thus  blot  out  the  upper 
line  of  Roosevelt  Ridge  and  the  huge  gap  m^ade 
by  Hanna  Glacier  between  it  and  Mt.  McKinley, 
gi\'ing  the  great  upHft  the  appearance  of  gradual 
easy  slopes.  But  the  cloudless  skies  of  night  and 
morning  alter  the  prospect  to  one  of  sharp  con- 
tours, interrupted  aretes,  and  successive  cliffs  of 
rock  and  ice.  Roosevelt  Ridge,  which  has  an 
altitude  of  seven  thousand  feet  in  the  north-west, 
gradually  rises  to  twelve  thousand  feet  in  the  south- 
west. Its  crests  are  blanketed  by  sheets  of  ice 
with  huge  cornices  and  overhanging  glaciers  to 
the  west,  and  to  the  east  many  tributary  glaciers 
carry  ice-tongues  into  Hanna  Glacier. 

With  our  mountain  equipment  and  some  fire- 
wood packed  on  four  horses  we  crossed  the  glacial 
stream  not  far  from  where  it  rushed  out  of  the 
great  green  caverns  of  the  face  of  Hanna  Glacier. 
The  waters  boiled  among  large  granite  boulders 
freighted  from  the  heights  by  the  movement 
of  the  glacier,  and  after  tumbling  over  widening 
bars  of  glacial  silt,  the  stream  narrowed,  plunged 
into  a  canyon,  and  disappeared  in  the  great  green 
expanse.  This  river  makes  the  McKinley  fork 
of  the  Kantishna,  which  carries  the  northern  Mt. 
McKinley  drainage  to  the  Tanana,  en  route  to  the 
Yukon  and  the  Bering  Sea. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     59 

On  the  north  shore  we  found  signs  of  a  fresh 
camp.  It  was  the  first  signs  of  human  Hfe  which 
we  had  seen  for  more  than  two  months.  Leaving 
the  horses  to  graze  among  stunted  willows  we 
examined  the  camp  carefully.  We  had  about 
decided  that  it  was  an  Indian  camp  when  a  wrap- 
per of  a  kodak  film  was  found.  We  were  not  pre- 
pared to  believe  that  Indians  carried  cameras, 
and  sought  diligently  for  some  other  signs.  A 
pair  of  blue  overalls  and  some  woollen  socks  were 
found,  which  even  yet  was  not  conclusive.  In  the 
ground  we  saw  the  footprints  of  a  mule,  and  then 
we  concluded  it  was  a  railroad  survey  party.  This 
was  agreeable  news,  for  it  relieved  the  tension 
of  our  shortage  of  supplies.  The  main  privation 
from  which  we  suffered  at  this  time  was  the  lack 
of  salt.  Early  in  the  campaign  the  horses  located 
the  salt  and  ate  it  during  a  single  night.  This  did 
not  interfere  with  the  alpine  work;  in  the  climb- 
ing diet  salt  was  rigorously  excluded  because  of  its 
faculty  to  produce  thirst  where  water  could  not 
be  easily  obtained,  but  in  the  lower  country,  with- 
out bacon,  and  without  salt,  fresh  meat  and  beans 
did  not  promise  a  relish  for  our  enjoyment.  Under 
a  bush  Printz  picked  up  an  old  rusty  covered  tin 
can.  Raising  it  for  a  better  examination  it  was 
found  to  be  full  of  gray  granules,  which  we 
took  to  be  arsenic,  a  part  of  a  bird-collector's 
outfit.  It  might  be  salt,  but  who  would  taste  it? 
If  salt  it  was  worth  its  weight  in  gold,  but  we  had 
no  chemical  way  of  testing  it.    The  relative  chemi- 


6o    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

cal  qualities  of  arsenic  and  salt  were  heatedly 
discussed,  and  finally  some  one  took  the  risk  of 
arsenical  j^oisoning  by  putting  some  on  his  tongue, 
ready  to  spit  it  out  quickly.  With  a  broad  grin 
he  exclaimed,  "It  is  salt!"  and  everybody  at  once 
shouted  for  joy.  This  camp  we  later  learned  was 
made  by  Judge  Wickersham. 

Taking  a  course  parallel  to  Hanna  Glacier  we 
soon  found  splendid  caribou  trails  leading  in  a 
straight  line  to  the  base  of  Mt.  McKinley  through 
the  gap  forced  by  the  glacier.  Blueberries  were 
abundant,  but  they  were  frozen  and  those  of  us 
who  ate  them  in  quantities  developed  a  serious 
form  of  indigestion.  The  grass  had  a  similar  effect 
upon  the  horses,  as  it  was  also  frozen.  Following 
the  same  trail  along  the  glacier  for  eight  miles  we 
pitched  camp  on  the  evening  of  August  24th  within 
a  mile  of  the  base  of  the  frowning  cliffs  of  the  main 
mountain.  Here  the  glacier  made  a  sharp  turn, 
and  we  now  saw  for  the  first  time  that  the  huge 
stream  of  ice  swept  the  whole  north-west  face  of 
Mt.  McKinley  and  this  stream  as  a  highway  offered 
the  best  route  to  the  top. 

To  the  east  of  Hanna  Glacier  Mt.  McKinley 
rises  in  an  alternate  series  of  precipitous  granite 
cliffs  and  overhanging  glaciers  for  fifteen  thousand 
feet ;  and  to  the  west  in  similar  cliffs  and  glaciers 
Roosevelt  Ridge,  a  wide  imposing  line  of  mountains 
from  seven  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  feet  high, 
extends  for  twenty-five  miles  parallel  to  Mt.  McKin- 
ley.   Below  Roosevelt  Rido^e  to  the  west  are  three 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     6i 

rows  of  foothills  over  which  there  is  a  successive 
descent  to  the  lower  glacial  plain  at  three  thousand 
feet. 

As  we  were  pitching  the  tents  we  noticed  a  big 
grizzly  bear  on  our  trail.  He  leisurely  wandered 
over  the  bars  of  the  glacial  stream  to  the  little 
green  island  where  we  aimed  to  make  our  base 
camp.  We  had  with  us  plenty  of  fresh  meat,  so 
we  did  not  need  his  carcass,  nor  did  we  want  his 
skin,  but  we  did  not  like  his  boldness  nor  his 
familiarity. 

The  great  quivering  mass  expanded  to  alarm- 
ing proportions  as  he  neared  the  camp,  and  his 
funny  dance  on  his  clumsy  hind  legs,  while  his 
f orepaws  waved  an  evident  desire  for  a  handshake, 
was  not  at  all  funny  to  us  who  were  trying  to 
blufT  the  bear  by  putting  up  a  brave  front  and  a 
firm  stand  without  firearms.  We  had  only  ice- 
axes  as  weapons  of  defence,  and  as  the  bear  rose 
to  his  haunches  the  second  time  we  backed  up  to 
a  boulder,  from  the  top  of  which  we  expected  to 
defend  our  skins;  but  the  bear  was  considerate: 
after  eying  each  one  separately,  and  then  taking 
a  side  glance  at  the  horses,  he  rose,  snifTed  the 
air,  and  turned  into  a  great  basin  for  the  highlands, 
from  which  he  watched  the  curl  of  the  smoke  of 
our  camp-fires,  while  the  aroma  of  caribou  steaks 
kept  his  nose  pointed.  Our  sleep  that  night  was 
troubled  by  bear  thoughts  and  the  thunders  of 
avalanches. 

From  this  camp  we  started  for  the  upper  slopes 


62     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

with  the  climbing  equipment  packed  in  the  ruck- 
sacks. Under  heavy  packs  we  crossed  the  minia- 
ture mountains  of  broken  stone  to  a  narrow 
tongue  of  ice  which  ran  wedge-shape  down  the 
centre  of  the  glacier.  The  lower  ten  miles  of  this 
glacier  are  completely  buried  under  an  irregular 
co\'er  of  moraine.  The  travelling  was  extremely 
difficult  over  the  glacier,  though  not  particularly 
dangerous.  The  temperature  was  near  the  freez- 
ing point.  There  was  bright  sunshine  on  the 
higher  slopes,  but  into  the  glacial  gap  drifted 
frequent  clouds,  and  under  these  it  was  dull  and 
gloomy.  Toward  night  the  clouds  drifted  over 
us  so  frequently  that  we  found  ourselves  in  an 
almost  continuous  snowstorm.  Icy  winds  made  a 
whirl  of  snow  through  which  it  was  difficult  to 
spot  the  crevasses.  At  the  lower  drop  of  a  great 
serac  w^e  separated.  Dunn  and  Miller  returned 
to  the  base  camp,  while  Printz  joined  me  in  a  des- 
perate attempt  to  find  a  way  through  the  maze 
of  gaps  and  pinnacles.  There  was  no  way  over 
the  top,  so  we  descended  into  a  great  blue  cut, 
and  from  this  we  ascended  into  other  crevasses, 
following  one  after  another  to  the  better  ice 
above  the  serac.  At  an  altitude  of  eight  thou- 
sand feet  we  rose  above  the  settling  clouds  and 
burst  into  the  arctic  world,  with  all  its  glory 
of  glitter  and  frost,  and  continuing  our  march 
through  deep  snow  to  an  altitude  of  nine 
thousand  feet  we  pitched  the  silk  tent  on  the 
glacier  within  two  miles  of  the  south-west  arete, 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     63 

upon  the  ascent  of  which  our  future  fortune 
depended. 

The  temperature  was  ten  degrees  below  the 
freezing  point  and  the  bitterness  of  midwinter 
was  in  the  air.  We  heard  water  far  down  in  the 
crevasses,  and  determined  to  find  some  if  possi- 
ble, for  we  were  too  thirsty  to  wait  for  snow  to 
melt.  Furthermore,  we  desired  to  save  the  pre- 
cious fuel  which  we  had  carried  thousands  of  miles 
for  use  in  this  cloud-world.  Opening  out  our 
sleeping-bags,  we  drew  them  as  robes  around  our 
shoulders,  and  with  a  tight  line  we  sought  for 
water  along  the  crevasses.  Under  a  circle  of  new 
ice  near  the  tent  we  found  a  miniature  lake,  and 
from  it  we  first  filled  up,  and  then  our  aluminum 
can  was  filled.  In  the  tent  we  made  our  robes  into 
bags,  crept  in,  and  started  the  alcohol  lamp  and 
fried  caribou  steaks.  Later  tea  was  served.  Out- 
side an  arctic  blast  rushed  down  the  glacier,  and 
avalanches  from  every  side  made  the  night  air 
ring.  There  was  discomfort  and  real  danger  at 
hand,  but  we  were  warm  and  at  ease  within  the 
silk  walls  of  our  tent. 

Dunn  and  Shainwald  were  expected  to  meet 
us  here  on  the  day  following,  but  owing  to  some 
delay  they  did  not  come.  We  explored  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  glacier  and  outlined  the  line  of  at- 
tack which  we  aimed  to  pursue  in  the  next  climb. 

All  glaciers  in  the  Alaskan  Range  have  a  high 
gathering  basin,  out  of  which  descends  the  first 
ice  which  starts  the  frozen  stream  with  its  freight 


64     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

from  cloud  and  peak.  There  are  two  general 
systems  in  which  all  of  these  basins  may  be  classed. 
In  the  breaks  through  the  range,  or  in  the  passes 
between  high  peaks  along  the  range  where  clouds 
are  driven  through  gaps,  moisture  is  condensed 
in  large  quantities,  and  snow-fields  form  as  a 
result.  These  snow-fields  sometimes  make  one 
general  basin  for  several  glaciers,  but  usually 
there  is  a  separate  field  or  a  plurality  of  fields 
for  each  stream.  The  other  type  starts  from  an 
amphitheatre,  or  a  chain  of  amphitheatres,  over 
the  cliffs  of  which  the  clouds  are  interrupted  by 
still  higher  slopes.  Hanna  Glacier  belongs  to  this 
latter  type.  Its  main  amphitheatre  is  in  the  south- 
west corner  of  Mt.  McKinley,  and  from  it,  at  nine 
thousand  five  hundred  feet,  the  train  moves  around 
the  polished  granite,  foUow^ing  irregularly  be- 
tween Mt.  McKinley  and  Roosevelt  Ridge,  taking 
avalanches,  tributary  glaciers,  and  direct  cloud 
deposits  in  its  course  for  tw^enty-five  miles. 

From  a  point  near  our  camp  we  heard  ava- 
lanche after  avalanche  thunder  down  the  great 
slopes,  and  we  felt  the  glacier  under  us  shake  as  if 
moved  by  an  earthquake.  This  noise  of  rock-  and 
snow-slides  and  the  quiver  of  the  earth  are  char- 
acteristic of  Mt.  McKinley.  We  heard  or  felt  them 
everywhere  near  the  mountain,  and  the  danger 
from  this  source  was  very  great. 

On  August  29th  we  made  our  first  assault  on 
the  slope  of  the  main  peak,  selecting  again  the 
south-western  ridge,  which  from  every  observation 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     65 

of  the  mountain  offered  the  only  chance  to  gain  the 
summit.  In  Hanna  Glacier  our  altitude  was  eight 
thousand  feet.  We  began  the  ascent  in  the  track 
of  a  harmless  avalanche  of  soft  snow.  This  gave 
us  a  good  slope  for  a  few  hundred  feet,  and  then  we 
were  forced  to  cut  steps  up  a  slope  ranging  from 
forty  to  sixty  degrees.  Our  greatest  difficulty  was 
not  the  work  of  chopping  steps  in  the  ice,  but  the 
effort  of  removing  fourteen  inches  of  soft  snow 
before  we  found  trustworthy  ice  upon  which  a 
safe  footing  could  be  made.  Slowly  but  steadily 
we  advanced  against  a  freezing  wind  charged 
with  drift  snow,  until  the  setting  sun  forced  us  to 
seek  a  camping  place.  We  found  nowhere  a  level 
place  large  enough  for  our  tent,  so  we  were  com- 
pelled to  dig  away  snow  and  cut  down  the  ice  for 
a  tent  flooring.  This  camp  was  at  nine  thousand 
eight  hundred  feet.  The  day  following  the  slopes 
were  steeper  and  the  difficulty  of  cutting  steps 
greater,  but  we  rose  to  eleven  thousand  feet,  where 
we  were  again  compelled  to  cut  a  camping  floor 
to  keep  from  rolling  down  three  thousand  feet. 

Camp  was  pitched  in  a  hole  cut  out  of  the  steep 
icy  slopes;  we  nestled  closely  to  get  warm  under 
eider-duck  skins,  and  over  hard  blue  ice.  A 
frosty  blast  of  wind  was  blowing  hard  crystals  of 
snow  against  the  silk  walls  of  the  tent,  making 
a  metallic  noise.  There  were  four  of  us  as  tightly 
pressed  together  as  sardines  in  a  box.  From  each 
there  came  a  cone  of  breath  which  rose  in  curious 
circles  to  the  top  of  the  tent,  and  there  the  moisture 


66     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

was  frosted,  falling  in  beautiful  crystals  only  to 
add  misery  to  our  condition.  All  at  once  some 
one  who  had  peeped  out  exclaimed,  "My  God! 
look  at  that!"  and  as  quickly  as  we  could  get 
something  around  us  we  all  went  out  to  see  the 
thing  which  stopped  the  jerky  breath  of  our  emo- 
tional companion.  It  was  certainly  a  view  to 
enrapture  a  mountaineer,  but  we  were  not  com- 
fortable enough  to  absorb  its  tremendous  scenic 
importance.  A  cutting  wind  drove  little  ice 
needles  down  our  necks,  and  under  our  wraps  in  a 
manner  to  dispel  poetry.  But  we  took  the  thing 
in  quickly,  as  a  hungry  man  does  food,  and  then 
crept  back  under  our  furs  to  digest  it. 

Behind  us  were  the  awe-inspiring  successive 
cliffs  of  Mt.  McKinley,  its  glittering  spurs  pierc- 
ing a  dark  ptirple  sky  nine  thousand  feet  above 
us.  The  great  mountain  presented  all  the  phases 
of  the  most  terrible  conflict  of  elements.  Hun- 
dreds of  avalanches  were  thundering  down  the 
sides  of  the  giant  peak,  v^ith  trains  of  rock  and  ice 
followed  by  clouds  of  vapour  and  snow.  Against 
this  chaos  of  awful  noise  and  lightning  movement 
there  drifted  a  steadily  moving  fleet  of  snow- 
charged  clouds.  Vapours  were  dragged  down 
and  set  into  violent  agitation  by  the  swift  cur- 
rents of  the  avalanches.  At  high  altitudes  w^e  got 
only  an  occasional  peep  through  a  rift  in  the 
clouds,  but  this  peep  was  full  of  gloomy  mysteries. 
It  was  a  sheen  of  melancholy,  the  noise  of  a  great 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    67 

war  scene,  a  death-dealing  breath  storming  down 
every  ravine.  It  was  a  scene  which  in  our  posi- 
tion, with  the  low  temperature,  made  one's 
marrow  shrink.  But  the  outlook  in  the  other 
direction  was  quite  the  reverse.  Here  the  colour 
was  cheerful,  the  movement,  though  exciting, 
was  rhythmical,  and  configuration  of  cloud  and 
land,  though  on  a  gigantic  scale,  was  enticing, 
while  the  depth  of  perspective  led  the  mind  on  to 
dreams  of  happy  fairy-lands. 

Before  a  lilac  curtain,  feebly  dashed  with  gilt, 
the  sun  was  rapidly  drifting,  edging  northward, 
soon  to  plunge  below  the  cloud  level  at  our  feet. 
Seemingly  but  a  step  down,  though  two  thousand 
feet  below,  was  the  upper  line  of  a  curious  sea  of 
waving  clouds  glistening  like  liquid  gold,  the  waves 
crested  with  long  lines  of  pearl.  Over  this  strange 
sea-like  cloud  world,  there  were  many  fascinating 
optical  illusions.  Now  we  saw  a  mountain  rise, 
move,  explode,  and  vanish,  then  we  would  see  a 
lake  vague  in  outline,  rich  in  colour,  surrounded 
by  an  amphitheatre  of  ice-corniced  mountains  so 
near  that  we  could  almost  touch  some  spurs.  As 
we  had  about  made  out  the  strange  picture,  it 
dissolved  into  another,  like  the  views  of  a  stere- 
opticon.  Thus  the  scenes  ran  with  all  kinds  of 
pictures  to  suit  the  fancy  and  imagination  of  the 
observer.  Perhaps  the  most  deceptive  thing  that 
I  saw  was  the  upbuilding  of  a  giant  peak,  which 
for  a  time  seemed  to  rival  Mt.  Foraker.  It  slowly 
rose  out  of  a  particularly  brilliant  area  of  the  cloud 


68     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

line  in  the  south.  It  seemed  as  if  the  limelight 
was  turned  on  this  particular  spot,  and  for  a  long 
time  I  could  not  keep  my  eyes  away  from  it.  The 
surface  quivered,  a  huge  spray  was  thrown  up, 
and  then  a  spot  slowly  rose  dragging  up  with  it 
irregularly  most  of  the  level  around  it,  and  the 
surface  raised,  burst,  leaving  a  ragged  edge  some- 
what like  the  opening  through  the  paper-covered 
hoop  pierced  by  a  circus  rider.  Through  this  open- 
ing rose  a  vague  velvety  outline  of  a  mountain; 
the  ragged  edges  settled,  leaving  foothills,  ridges, 
vallevs,  and  gullies  with  sharp  cliffs  next  to  the 
mountain.  It  was  a  bird's-eye  view  of  an  exact 
replica  of  Mt.  Foraker.  But  as  the  air  cooled 
all  the  outlines  were  sharpened,  all  the  optical 
illusions  vanished,  and  this  particular  mountain 
settled  rapidly,  leaving  a  rift  through  which  we 
saw,  seven  thousand  feet  below,  a  blue  expanse  of 
glacial  ice. 

The  temperature  steadily  fell  from  twenty  to 
twelve;  the  entire  cloud  level  settled  and  had 
more  the  appearance  of  a  quiet  sea,  but  the  glit- 
ter of  gold  remained,  though  cooled  by  a  gauze  of 
blue.  While  our  great  mountain  and  all  its  fan- 
tastic illusions  vanished  with  the  falling  mercury 
there  remained  to  the  south-west  two  large  mount- 
ains, and  we  almost  expected  them  to  disappear 
but  they  did  not.  We  soon  recognised  these  as 
the  great  peaks,  Foraker  and  Russell.  Mt.  For- 
aker, twenty  miles  away,  a  cross-ridged,  ice- 
crested  mountain,  seventeen  thousand  feet  high; 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     69 

and  Mt.  Russell,  a  pyramid  of  ice-plated  rock 
forty  railes  south  west.  At  nine  thousand  feet  the 
slopes  of  both  mountains  were  hugged  by  a  sea 
of  clouds. 

On  the  day  following  we  shook  ourselves  out  of 
the  snow  and  examined  the  disheartening  slopes 
above.  The  entire  scene  had  changed.  There 
was  a  succession  of  shadowed  granite  cliffs  and 
glacial  walls  which  ran  up  into  the  glowing  sky. 
A  few  luminous  cloud  shreds  were  dragging  their 
edges  along  the  icy  spurs  at  about  sixteen  thou- 
sand feet.  The  western  side  of  the  giant  peak  was 
bathed  in  a  frigid  blue,  but  from  the  east  there 
came  a  warm  rose  glow,  which  soon  enveloped  the 
mountain  and  made  the  thing  enticing. 

Dunn  and  Print z  had  already  made  up  their 
minds  that  farther  progress  up  the  difficult  slopes 
and  into  the  coming  winter  was  impossible.  There 
was  much  to  support  this  view;  snow  was  falling 
almost  constantly,  the  icy  storms  were  sweeping 
the  spurs,  and  the  stilly  blackness  of  the  polar 
night  with  its  awful  cold  was  daily  thickening 
and  lengthening.  We  had,  however,  plenty  of 
mountain  food,  and  if  we  could  only  find  some 
safe  and  sure  line  of  attack  there  was  yet  a  chance 
for  success. 

The  ridge  upon  which  we  were  camped  at  eleven 
thousand  feet  led  with  an  ever-increasing  slope 
to  a  granite  cliff  which  did  not  appear  unclimbable 
from  below.      But  at  close  range  and  in  a  good 


70     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

light  we  could  see  that  farther  progress  on  the 
south-west  arete  was  impossible.  There  were  suc- 
cessive cliffs  for  four  thousand  feet.  Beyond  we 
saw  a  gradual  slope  leading  to  the  western  peak. 
Over  the  glacier  which  came  from  the  gap  between 
the  eastern  and  western  peaks  there  was  also  a 
promising  route.  After  a  careful  search  we  were 
compelled  to  acknowledge  defeat,  for  there  was 
no  way  around  the  succession  of  sheer  granite 
cliffs. 

Leaving  some  pemmican  and  fuel  here  to  ease 
our  packs  we  descended  quickly  over  the  steps 
previously  cut,  reaching  our  camp  on  the  glacier 
at  eight  thousand  feet  on  September  ist,  as  the 
parting  sun  threw  piercing  blue  shadows  over  us. 
From  here  on  the  following  day  we  made  a  des- 
perate dash  of  tw^enty-nine  miles  over  the  ice  and 
moraine  to  the  face  of  Hanna  Glacier. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Northward   Through    the   Range    and    Into 

THE    ChULITNA. 

WE  HAD  aspired  to  get  to  the  top  of  the  great 
mountain  and  the  many  hardships  served 
to  increase  the  tension  of  a  nervous  excitement 
which  was  fired  by  momentary  surprises  and  in- 
spirations in  wonderful  scenes.  The  spirit  of  dis- 
covery ran  with  our  aspirations  and  the  ascent. 
Here  we  breathed  the  free  air  of  the  Arctic,  while 
the  eye  wandered  over  the  snowy  grandeur  to  the 
broad  green  splendour  of  the  lower  game  lands, 
the  visual  senses  drinking  to  intoxication  while 
the  spirit  communed  with  nature  in  moods  of 
severe  playfulness.  We  had  gone  into  an  upper 
world,  into  the  battle-ground  of  terrestrial  and 
celestial  forces.  We  had  coped  with  a  superior  foe 
and  our  battle  was  half  won  when  the  auxiliary 
forces  of  our  adversary,  the  advancing  run  of 
winter  and  its  awful  night  of  frost,  called  a  halt. 
As  we  descended  from  our  second  attempt  we 
were  made  to  realise  by  frozen  grass  and  increasing 
snowstorms  that  the  season  for  mountaineering 
had  closed ;  furthermore,  the  north  wind  convinced 
us  that  if  we  wished  to  get  out  of  the  country  before 

71 


/  - 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


the  long  winter  and  the  night  stilled  the  sub-arctic 
world  about  us,  we  must  quickly  reach  the  head 
waters  of  some  big  stream.  We  did  not  care 
to  go  to  the  Yukon,  because  in  doing  so  we  would 
cover  explored  territory.  We  could  not  return 
as  we  had  come,  because  horse  feed  along  the 
western  slope  of  the  range  was  already  frozen. 
We  were  not  yet  ready  to  leave  Mt.  McKinley, 
provided  we  could  only  linger  at  some  point  where 
our  retreat  would  not,  as  was  likely  in  our  present 
position,  be  suddenly  cut  off.  Altogether,  our 
purposes  would  seem  best  served  if  we  could 
cross  the  range  and  get  into  the  Chulitna  Valley; 
but  the  possibility  of  such  attainment  seemed 
doubtful,  in  the  time  at  our  disposal,  unless  we 
were  fortunate  enough  to  find  a  pass  within  a  few 
days'  travel.  Accordingly,  we  resolved  to  make  a 
desperate  attempt  to  cross  the  range  to  the  eastern 
slope,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  in  this,  our 
alternative  was  to  make  the  deep  waters  of  the 
Toklat,  and  travel  thence  by  raft  to  the  Tanana 
River. 

Though  thwarted  by  an  insurmountable  wall, 
we  had  ascended  Mt.  McKinley  far  enough  to  get 
a  good  view  of  its  entire  western  face.  The  walls 
of  the  main  mountain  rise  out  of  Hanna  Glacier, 
which  sweeps  the  western  slope.  Avalanche  after 
avalanche  rush  down  the  steep  cliffs  and  deposit 
their  downpour  of  ice,  rock,  and  snow  on  the  glacier. 
Beyond  Hanna  Glacier  is  a  remarkable  ridge  of 
lesser  mountains,  extending  about  sixteen  miles 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     73 

parallel  to  the  great  mountain.  Its  altitude  is 
seven  thousand  five  hundred  feet  at  the  north, 
and  it  gradually  rises  to  eleven  thousand  nine 
hundred  feet  at  the  south.  The  ridge  is  weighted 
down  with  all  the  ice  it  can  possibly  carry.  Many 
glaciers  grind  down  the  gorges  on  both  sides,  and 
along  the  western  slope  every  cliff  is  heavily 
corniced  with  ice.  The  altitudes  of  the  lower 
clouds  here  range  from  six  thousand  to  ten  thou- 
sand feet,  and  when  looking  at  Mt.  McKinley  from 
the  west,  during  the  greater  part  of  our  sojourn, 
we  could  see  only  this  great  ridge,  the  main 
mountain  being  usually  obscured  under  heavy 
clouds.  For  this  unique  geographical  feature  I 
have  placed  in  honour  of  our  President  the  name 
"Roosevelt  Ridge."  West  of  Roosevelt  Ridge 
is  a  series  of  snow-free  foothills,  mostly  pyramidal 
in  shape.  We  descended  a  dome-shaped  mountain 
six  miles  south  of  this  ridge,  from  which  place 
we  made  our  final  attack.  The  mountain  referred 
to  is  entirely  covered  with  ice,  and  its  summit 
reached  an  altitude  of  fourteen  thousand  feet. 
This  will  appear  on  our  map  as  Mt.  Hunter  in 
honour  of  Miss  A.  F.  Hunter  of  Newport.  In 
the  eastern  end  of  Roosevelt  Ridge  there  is  a 
huge  amphitheatre,  in  which  rises  a  glacier  about 
two  miles  wide  and  six  miles  long;  this  glacier, 
in  honour  of  one  of  our  companions,  received 
the  name  of  Shainwald  Glacier.  Over  Shainwald 
Glacier  we  had  made  our  first  ascent  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  eight  thousand  three  hundred  feet. 


74     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

As  we  were  about  ready  to  start  on  our  un- 
certain effort  to  cross  the  range  we  found  ourselves 
deserted  by  sbc  of  our  horses.  In  their  eagerness 
to  get  grass  the  animals  had  wandered  dow^n- 
stream  toward  the  main  valley  of  the  Kuskokwim. 
The  seven  remaining  horses  were  easily  able  to 
carr}'  our  reduced  packs,  so  we  allowed  the  way- 
ward ones  to  seek  their  forttmes  in  lowlands  among 
the  caribou  and  moose. 

On  the  morning  of  September  4th  we  started  on 
our  weary  march  along  the  western  foothills  above 
the  tree  line.  The  slopes  w^ere  long  and  difficult, 
and  the  travelling  after  our  mountain  experience 
proved  very  tiresome.  Every  sudden  descent 
from  the  high  altitudes  produced  a  feeling  of 
languor,  wath  difficult  heart  action.  This  after- 
effect of  mountain  w^ork  was  to  us  much  worse 
than  an}^  effect  of  ascending  altitudes.  So  much 
was  the  fatigue  felt  that  as  we  ate  lunch  on  a 
prominent  hill  we  picked  out  our  evening  camp 
only  a  few  miles  aw^ay.  The  lunch  was  eaten 
with  some  relish,  because  we  were  hungry  and  had 
w^orked  hard.  It  was  the  usual  meal  of  boiled 
caribou- ribs,  cold  and  without  salt;  also  without 
bread,  or  an^^thing  else  except  glacial  water. 
While  we  were  picking  the  bones  our  horses  w^ere 
searching  little  depressions  for  a  few  sprigs  of 
grass  w^hich  had  not  been  frozen,  and  as  they  were 
being  rounded  up  w^e  saw^  several  caribou.  Printz 
with  a  rifle  and  Shainwald  with  a  revolver  crept 
stealthily  around  a  hill  into  a  ravine  and  soon  we 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     75 

heard  a  volley  of  shots.  We  followed  with  the 
horses  and  took  the  choice  bits  off  a  fat  bull. 
Within  an  hour  we  were  headed  for  the  willows 
of  a  small  creek,  and  here  the  nimrods  spied  and 
secured  a  moose,  which  was  a  very  good  excuse 
for  shortening  our  day's  march.  So  we  camped 
in  moose  haunts  in  a  swamp  where  we  built  a 
huge  camp-fire  and  ate  an  incredible  amount  of 
moose  steaks  while  our  horses  climbed  the  neigh- 
bouring hills  for  the  vanishing  grass. 

Packing  our  horses  on  the  following  morning 
with  an  abundance  of  fresh  meat,  we  then  took 
a  course  for  Muldrow  Glacier,  beyond  which  we 
hoped  to  find  a  pass.  In  two  days'  marching 
seven  hours  daily  over  tundra,  we  reached  the 
terminal  moraine  of  this  great  glacier,  and  we 
then  marched  south-easterly  to  examine  the  moun- 
tains. Our  course  hitherto  had  been  close  to  that 
of  Brooks  and  Reaburn,  and  their  map,  though 
quickly  made,  was  found  to  be  remarkably  correct. 
But  now  we  were  to  traverse  absolutely  unknown 
territory,  and  the  task  thus  became  doubly  in- 
teresting, though  much  more  difficult.  In  our 
course  we  first  discovered  a  glacial  stream  pouring 
through  a  canyon  only  a  few  hundred  feet  north 
of  Muldrow  Glacier.  We  followed  the  stream  into 
a  broad  valley,  and  there  learned  that  the  river 
was  the  output  of  a  system  of  glaciers  among 
a  cluster  of  sharp  peaks  seven  miles  east  of  the 
Muldrow  Glacier. 

As  we  left  the  lateral  moraine  of  the  big  glacier, 


76     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

travelling  on  the  gravel  bars  of  the  newly  discov- 
ered river,  we  moved  through  a  great  broad  basin, 
which  we  later  discovered  extended  nearly  fifty 
miles  north-easterly.  To  the  east  were  snow- 
capped mountains  from  seven  thousand  to  ten 
thousand  feet  high,  while  to  the  west  were  brown 
weatherworn  mountains  of  from  five  thousand 
to  seven  thousand  feet  in  altitude.  The  valley 
had  a  general  width  of  seven  miles  and  an  average 
elevation  of  four  thousand  feet;  and  I  named  it, 
in  honour  of  one  of  our  companions,  Dunn  Valley. 
On  September  8th  we  camped  in  the  canyon  of 
a  small  stream  at  the  base  of  a  rounded  black 
mountain,  to  the  west  of  which  we  hoped  to  be 
able  to  find  a  pass. 

After  a  hasty  meal  of  unsalted  moose-steaks 
I  asked  Printz  and  Dunn  to  join  me  in  an  ascent 
of  the  mountain  before  us,  which  we  called  Black 
Head.  The  climb  was  steep,  but  not  difficult,  and 
on  the  way  we  found  many  tracks  of  grizzly 
bears,  caribou,  and  mountain  sheep.  In  the 
course  of  an  hour  we  reached  the  summit  at  an 
altitude  of  five  thousand  four  hundred  feet.  From 
here  we  had  a  magnificent  view  of  a  great  expanse 
of  country,  upon  which  it  is  probable  no  human 
eye  had  rested  before.  Thirty-five  miles  to  the 
south-west,  looking  across  unnamed  mountains 
twelve  thousand  feet  high,  we  saw  the  summit  of 
the  unconquered  culminating  peak  of  North 
America.  The  upper  walls  of  this  great  uplift 
from   this  side   had   for   us   a  new   aspect.     An 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     77 

almost  constant  stream  of  clouds  swept  over  and 
around  the  mountain  from  the  east,  and  a  blue 
electric  glow  softened  the  rough  outline.  Now 
and  again  we  could  see  the  summit,  and  from  here 
it  resembled  very  much  the  crown  of  a  molar 
tooth.  Four  tubercles  were  distinctly  visible; 
the  saddles  seen  from  the  west  formed  two,  and 
to  the  east  were  two  rather  higher  and  more  dis- 
tinct. These  tubercles  of  this  giant  tooth  are 
separated  by  large  glaciers,  whose  frozen  currents 
pour  down  very  steep  slopes.  If  it  were  not  so 
difficult  to  get  at  this  side  of  the  mountain,  we 
reasoned  that  here  the  upper  slopes  might  offer 
a  promising  route. 

Apparently  continuous  with  Mt.  McKinley,  and 
extending  north-easterly  far  beyond  our  position, 
there  was  a  sharp  icy  ridge  in  which  we  saw 
several  mountains  over  ten  thousand  feet  high. 
We  thought  we  could  break  through  this  ridge 
about  ten  miles  northward  from  our  position, 
but  the  prospective  pass  which  we  had  seen  from 
below  was  only  a  small  valley  walled  off  by  the 
main  ridge.  About  eight  miles  up  the  valley 
we  saw  the  benches  of  a  large  stream  and  on  the 
banks  spruce  trees.  The  sight  of  spruce  raised 
hopes  of  a  big  camp-fire  and  a  good  camping-ground 
with  better  prospects  of  grass  for  our  poor,  half- 
starved  horses.  Along  the  upper  slopes,  in  the 
most  inaccessible  places,  we  saw  long  lines  of 
snowy  dots  zigzag  on  the  sunny  rocks;  these  were 
mountain  sheep  in  great  numbers,  but  our  larder 


78     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

was  too  well  stocked  and  our  time  too  precious 
to  seek  them.  Around  us  and  toward  the  un- 
named brown  mountains  northward  we  saw 
innumerable  ptarmigan. 

After  plotting  our  course  for  the  following  day, 
we  descended  and  camped  among  some  scrub- 
willows.  Here  we  found  coal  in  the  stream's 
bed,  and  near  by  signs  of  petroleum.  On  the  day 
following  we  moved  our  pack  train  to  the  river 
we  had  seen  from  Black  Head,  but,  much  to  our 
disappointment,  the  southerly  outlook  here  did 
not  promise  a  pass.  Beyond,  the  main  valley 
widened,  the  glacial  streams  became  more  numer- 
ous, willows  were  larger,  and  signs  of  game  more 
abundant.  Our  camp  on  the  9th  was  near  a  salt- 
lick, where  many  animals  had  congregated  to  eat 
the  salty  soil.  The  drainage  all  along  Dunn 
Basin  was  northward  into  the  Toklat  River. 
The  connecting  A- shaped  valley  forming  the 
basin  had  been  carved  out  by  some  ancient 
glacier.  To  the  eastward  the  basin  ended  in  a 
series  of  hills,  and  there  w^e  felt  that  we  were 
certain  to  find  a  pass.  On  the  loth  w^e  camped 
on  a  large  stream  at  the  end  of  our  newly  dis- 
covered basin,  and  from  here,  looking  southward, 
we  discovered  a  wide  cut  through  the  ridge. 
Through  this  opening,  over  a  glacier,  came  the 
moist  easterly  winds.  The  horses  were  desperately 
hungry  and  were  bent  on  deserting  us.  To  guard 
against  this  we  set  up  a  watch  through  the  night, 
but    in   the   dense   blackness   of   midnight    they 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     79 

escaped  and  back-trailed.  On  the  morning  of 
the  nth,  while  Dunn  and  Printz  searched  for 
the  horses,  Shainwald  and  I  explored  the  prospec- 
tive pass.  In  an  hour  we  had  ascended  the 
face  of  the  new  glacier  and  walked  over  ice  very 
much  crevassed.  Ahead  were  two  possible  routes 
to  cross  the  range — to  the  north  and  to  the  south 
of  a  nunatak  which  projected  above  the  glacier. 
We  gradually  rose  to  an  elevation  of  six  thousand 
one  hundred  feet,  crossing  hundreds  of  crevasses 
in  a  thick  snowstorm,  and  as  we  came  to  the 
end  of  the  easterly  arm  of  the  glacier  the  snow- 
cloud  vanished,  the  weather  cleared,  and  with  a 
good  deal  of  pleasure  we  looked  down  into  the 
green  valley  of  the  Chulitna,  the  main  tributary 
of  the  Susitna  River.  The  descent  however, 
promised  to  be  very  difficult  for  our  horses,  though 
possible  in  an  emergency  like  ours. 

We  next  sought  a  course  through  deep,  soft 
snow  around  the  nunatak  to  the  westerly  arm. 
A  cloud  of  snow  swept  the  glacier,  and  so  thor- 
oughly blotted  out  the  huge  mountains  to  each 
side  that  we  were  compelled  to  travel  by  compass. 
For  nearly  two  hours  we  marched  up  this  arm, 
keeping  our  glacier  rope  tight,  almost  expecting 
to  drop  into  a  crevasse  any  moment.  Suddenly 
we  broke  through  the  clouds  and  just  beyond 
Shainwald 's  toes  appeared  the  brink  of  a  precipice 
with  a  perpendicular  drop  of  three  thousand  feet. 
We  quickly  stepped  back,  and  then  beheld  the  most 
desolate  mountain  wilderness  which  it  has  ever  been 


So    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

my  privilege  to  behold .  Here  were  the  easterly  foot- 
hills of  the  McKinley  group,  black  ragged  peaks, 
dotted  by  spots  of  fresh  snow.  We  were  at  an  al- 
titude of  seven  thousand  feet,  and  these  mountains 
were  a  little  higher.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
was  their  apparently  uniform  height  of  about  seven 
thousand  five  hundred  feet.  Over  this  expanse 
of  jagged  peaks  there  drifted  heavy  silver-edged 
clouds.  Sometimes  we  could  see  over  them,  at  other 
times  under  them,  but  at  nearly  all  times  through 
them.  This  remarkable  effect  also  induced  a  mir- 
age, which  drew  up  some  mountains  to  such 
heights  that  we  could  see  huge  needles  of  rock  so 
far  above  us  that  we  believed  ourselves  discoverers 
of  several  peaks  that  rivalled  Mt.  McKinley. 

As  we  turned,  the  clouds  were  now  for  a  time 
swept  out  of  the  divide  by  a  strong  northerly  wind, 
giving  us  a  good  view  of  the  glacier  over  which 
we  had  advanced  in  a  snowstorm.  It  is  about  eight 
miles  long  and  somewhat  less  than  two  miles  wide. 
The  highest  mountains  on  each  side  are  eight  thou- 
sand feet,  and  from  these  several  small  tributaries 
pour  down  their  frozen  output.  This  new  glacier 
I  have  named  Harvey  Glacier,  in  honour  of  Mr. 
George  Harvey. 

The  drainage  from  Harvey  Glacier  spreads  out 
into  numerous  channels  over  a  great  bed  of 
glacial  silt  about  a  mile  wide.  This  takes  a  course 
almost  due  north  across  Dunn  Basin,  and  then  it 
enters  a  canyon,  after  which  it  probably  takes 
an  easterly  course  to  the  Toklat  River. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     8i 

Nearing  the  centre  of  Harvey  Glacier,  we  met 
the  recovered  pack-train,  carefully  guided  by 
Dunn,  Printz,  and  Miller,  between  two  great 
pillars  of  granite,  which  mark  the  gates  of  the 
divide.  From  here  the  task  of  getting  the  horses 
over  and  around  wide  crevasses  became  extremely 
difficult,  and  as  we  ascended  higher  the  horses 
frequently  slipped  into  wide  gaps,  deceptively 
bridged  by  snow.  Our  horses,  however,  were  now 
pretty  well  used  to  all  kinds  of  hardships,  and, 
though  they  were  thoroughly  frightened  by  fre- 
quent falls  into  dangerous  cavities,  they  carried 
their  packs  nobly  and  safely  over  the  divide. 

The  most  difficult  task  for  the  horses,  among 
their  long  series  of  hard  adventures,  was  the 
descent  from  this  glacial  pass.  In  less  than  two 
hours  they  came  down  three  thousand  feet  at  an 
angle  sometimes  too  steep  for  the  men.  It  was 
a  route  over  sharp  stones,  ice,  and  frozen  ground; 
but  the  animals,  with  their  feet  and  legs  cut  and 
bruised — ^leaving  bloody  stains  everywhere  in 
their  trail — followed  us  without  being  urged  toward 
the  green  fields  of  the  lower  valley.  We  were 
lucky  enough  to  cross  a  green  slope  of  long  young 
grass  just  as  we  were  aiming  to  strike  camp,  and 
from  here  the  famished  animals  refused  to  be  urged 
on,  so  we  quickly  removed  their  packs  that  they 
might  eat  to  their  utmost  capacity.  It  was  their 
first  feed  of  grass  which  had  not  been  frozen,  for 
more  than  two  weeks. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Fording,  Swimming,  and  Rafting  the  Chulitna 

AS  WE  tumbled  out  of  the  clouds  which  were 
compressed  and  driven  through  the  newly 
discovered  pass,  we  left  behind  us  for  a  time  the 
icy  winds  of  the  early  winter,  but  the  gloom  of 
the  coming  arctic  night,  was  daily  thicken- 
ing. From  seven  thousand  feet  we  suddenly 
dropped  to  three  thousand  feet,  into  an  unknown 
land;  so  far  as  we  knew  there  were  neither  In- 
dians nor  prospectors  within  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles.  What  the  future  had  in  store  for  us 
could  only  be  guessed  at;  we  had  seven  horses 
thin  and  hungry,  but  the  country  over  which  we 
were  about  to  move  promised  at  least  sprigs  of 
willows  and  Cottonwood  trees  upon  which  the 
hardy  creatures  could  subsist.  The  land,  however, 
was  not  a  horse  country,  at  least  not  to  the  south 
in  the  direction  in  which  we  must  push  to  the 
coast.  Every  little  stream  from  the  great  range 
cut  a  huge  canyon  across  our  track.  The  only 
chance  was  to  keep  close  to  the  Chulitna,  ford  and 
swim  and  cut  a  trail  through  the  thick  under- 
brush, pushing  south  quickly  and  desperately  to 

82 


Copyright,  1904,  by  Harper  and  Brothers 

CUTTING  STEPS  IN  THE  ICE  AT  11,000  FEET 


O'liyright,  1914,  by  Harper  and  Brothers 

i5REAKI.\G   CAMP   0\  THE   SOUTHWEST  RIDGE  AT  10,000  FEET 
Steps  were  cut  for  3,000  feet  up  this  steep  wall 


HARVEY  GLACIER 
Over  which  a  new  pass  was  discovered 


Cop>  right,  1904,  by  Harper  and  Brothers 


Ccpyright,  1904.  by  H  iri.er  ..lul  brothers 

MT.  McKIXLEY  FROM  THE  NORTHWEST.    19  MILES  DISTANT 
The  Kanlishna  River 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     81, 

rafting  water  before  the  advancing  winter  im- 
prisoned us  in  the  heart  of  Alaska. 

The  food  supply,  though  not  dangerously  low, 
was  such  that  we  were  anxious  to  get  to  Cook 
Inlet  quickly.  Along  the  western  side  of  the 
range  we  could  count  on  game  to  supply  our 
larder,  but  along  the  east  there  was  no  such  se- 
curity of  a  supply.  Before  crossing  the  range 
we  counted  on  the  uncertainty  of  game  in  the 
Chulitna  and  packed  our  horses  with  all  the 
moose  and  caribou  meat  that  could  be  carried. 
This  meat,  now  two  weeks  old,  was  not  particu- 
larly appetizing,  and  fuithermore  we  must  eat  it 
without  salt,  for  our  last  find  of  salt  was  now  ex- 
hausted. There  was  no  longer  any  flour,  sugar, 
or  bacon.  Indeed  our  meals  were  made  of  highly 
coloured  and  highly  scented  moose  steaks  and 
beans,  both  without  salt,  and  tea,  mixed  with 
dried  onions,  without  sugar  or  milk.  The  food 
was  satisfying,  but  it  did  not  go  down  easily. 

We  had  carried  a  fair  supply  of  wholesome 
food,  but  there  is  a  limit  to  transportation  facili- 
ties in  this  kind  of  pioneer  work.  Hunger  is  the 
great  call  for  action  to  all  life  in  the  northland, 
and  it  was  ours  more  keenly  than  ever  at  this 
moment.  The  dogs  and  horses  and  wolves  and 
foxes,  all  seeking  to  satisfy  the  same  pang,  helped 
themselves  from  our  scant  supply,  and  now  we 
must  either  seek  their  sources  or  sacrifice  our 
horses.  There  was  ever  before  us  the  possibility 
that  we  might  be  detained  for  the  winter  as  was 


84    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Lieutenant  Heron,  and  this  outlook  with  our  food 
supply  nearly  exhausted  and  our  clothing  in 
tatters  with  neither  coats,  shoes,  nor  hats  caused 
much  anxiety,  while  as  a  precaution  against 
starvation  or  freezing  we  carefully  guarded  a 
few  necessities.  The  matches  and  ammunition 
were  securely  packed  in  several  waterproof  cover- 
ings, for  with  a  liberal  supply  of  these  in  a  land 
where  food  and  game  could  be  secured  we  felt 
safe.  We  also  reserved  a  supply  of  our  alpine 
food  sufficient  to  support  us  for  about  one  month ; 
thus  with  the  horror  of  the  winter  before  us  there 
was  still  the  hope  of  ultimate  sustaining  powers. 
Our  food  prospects  without  salt  were  not  pleas- 
ing to  the  palate,  still  we  could  keep  the  inner 
fires  burning. 

At  breakfast  on  September  9th,  these  thoughts 
took  definite  shape  while  I  watched  the  anxious 
solicitude  on  the  chilled  faces  of  my  companions. 
Our  camp  was  in  the  first  willows  below  the  descend- 
ing snow  line.  A  piercing  frost  had  caused  us  to 
shiver  all  night,  and  as  we  came  over  to  the  feeble 
glow  of  the  willow  camp-fire  there  was  an  exchange 
of  confidences  which  clearly  ran  to  premonitions  of 
an  arctic  winter  imprisonment.  The  flat  taste 
of  the  meat,  the  insipid  and  repulsive  saltless  beans, 
and  the  onion  tea  did  not  allay  this  spectre  of 
hard  luck.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  perplexing 
care  there  was  one  redeeming  note  of  joy.  Our 
horses  for  the  first  time  in  weeks  were  lying  in 
tall  green  grass,  with  stomachs  full,  grunting  with 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     85 

delight  which  sent  gladness  through  our  despond- 
ent hearts.  Good,  faithful  creatures,  how  we  were 
attached  to  them  at  this  time !  They  had  followed 
us  through  forest  and  tundra,  over  icy  rivers  into 
the  snow  clouds  of  the  big  mountain.  They  had 
learned  to  climb  steep  slopes  and  to  cross  glaciers 
which  I  never  would  have  believed  possible  for  a 
horse.  They  were  almost  human  in  their  loyalty 
to  the  aim  of  our  expedition  and  as  each  man  had 
a  special  reason  for  his  friendship  for  a  special 
horse,  to  see  the  horses  full  and  happy  was  to 
manifest  the  best  wishes  for  our  animal  friends. 

The  horses  having  been  packed  with  the  precious 
remnants  of  the  season's  supplies,  we  started  along 
the  small  glacial  stream  which  drained  the  pass, 
and  as  we  neared  the  timber  line  we  took  a  south- 
erly course  over  tundras  and  rolling  hills  into  a 
clear  stream.  We  followed  this  creek  several 
miles  into  a  canyon  but  could  not  keep  this  course 
because  of  the  narrowing  of  the  canyon  and  the 
large  boulders.  Ascending  to  the  brim  we  still 
kept  a  southerly  course  along  the  edge  of  the  cliffs 
to  a  high  bluff  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  Chu- 
litna  near  its  main  western  tributary.  We  had 
covered  about  fifteen  miles,  had  gotten  blue- 
berries and  currants,  and  were  offered  ravens  and 
ptarmigan.  The  march  though  difficult  and  tire- 
some cheered  us  up  very  much  for  though  we  saw 
no  large  game  we  found  good  grass  for  our  horses 
and  saw  that  we  were  nearing  large  rivers  which 
we  knew  would  take  us  to  tide-water  swiftly. 


86     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Around  a  bright  fire  of  stunted  spruce  we 
watched  the  sun  settle  behind  the  saw-tooth  ridge 
through  which  we  had  just  come.  A  brilliant 
afterglow  softened  the  jagged  peaks  and  warmed 
the  shivering  blue  of  the  high  snow  sheets.  There 
was  much  colour  in  the  lowlands,  the  cotton- 
wood  trees  were  golden,  the  willows  had  changed 
to  red,  the  mosses  were  fired  by  orange  and  cardi- 
nal, the  spruce  and  alders  were  darkening.  It  was 
all  remarkably  beautiful  but  it  led  to  the  thought 
of  an  early  winter  which  we  were  not  prepared 
to  face.  That  night  a  beautiful  moonlight  sent  a 
thrill  of  exaltation  through  us  as  we  watched  the 
great  lines  of  mountains  about  waving  their 
cloaks  of  snow  in  changing  hues  of  blue  and  pur- 
ple. The  foxes  barked,  the  ravens  screeched,  the 
ptarmigan  laughed,  and  at  long  range  we  heard 
the  cry  of  wolves  and  the  rumble  of  avalanches. 
It  was  an  interesting  shrieking  wilderness  to  which 
we  felt  like  adding  the  cry  of  human  voices. 

As  the  moon  sank  into  a  glacial  cut  with  a  great 
dark  cloud  the  east  paled,  the  fresh  snow  of  the 
peaks  glittered  in  gold,  the  tree  tops  brightened, 
but  the  frost  increased.  With  the  rising  sun  there 
came  a  rush  of  wind  out  of  the  glacial  basins  that 
made  our  teeth  chatter.  At  the  morning  camp- 
fire  with  a  cloudless  sky  we  were  able  to  study 
the  new  surroundings  to  good  advantage.  Look- 
ing westerly  we  saw  a  large  gap  through  the  range 
which  seemed  to  offer  a  better  pass  than  the  one 
we  had  taken.    "Below  this  gap  were  three  sharp 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     87 

snow  peaks  about  nine  thousand  feet  high,  and  a 
few  miles  eastward  a  sharp  black  peak.  Large 
glaciers  were  noted  here  collecting  the  combined 
precipitation.  We  discovered  from  another  point 
that  out  of  the  main  gap  came  another  glacier.  The 
streams  from  these  glaciers  united  with  other 
streams  to  make  a  large  river.  This  river  has  been 
named  in  honour  of  my  friend  and  arctic  colleague 
Mr.  Herbert  L.  Bridgman,  of  Brooklyn.  Bridgman 
River  takes  a  south-westerly  course  about  twenty 
miles  from  the  range,  then  plunges  into  a  canyon 
and  joins  the  clear  stream  from  the  broad  pass, 
making  the  Chulitna. 

In  our  next  march  the  underbrush  was  so  thick 
and  the  canyons  so  numerous  that  we  were  forced 
to  take  the  sand-bars  of  Bridgman  River  for  a 
highway. 

Getting  into  this  glacial  stream  we  found  excel- 
lent travelling,  but  the  slews  soon  narrowed,  and 
led  us  into  a  canyon  with  walls  three  hundred 
feet  high.  The  rushing  milky  waters  among 
richly  tinted  cliffs  crowned  by  trees  in  beautiful 
foliage  made  a  picture  sublimely  fascinating; 
but  just  at  this  time  we  were  not  so  much 
interested  in  landscapes  as  we  were  in  making 
rapid  progress.  We  were  still  anxious  to  ex- 
amine Mt.  McKinley  from  the  east,  and  all  our 
energies  were  bent  on  getting  to  the  mountain 
as  quickly  as  possible.  The  low  mountains 
about  were  blanketed  by  newly  fallen  snow, 
and  the  temperature  was  falling  to   the   freezing 


88     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

point  every  night.  We  desired  to  get  out  of  this 
canyon,  and  cut  a  trail,  but  we  dared  not  lose  the 
time.  Fully  knowing  the  danger  of  following  an 
unknown  stream  through  a  canyon,  we  still  had  no 
alternative. 

We  marched  down-stream,  crossing  from  bank 
to  bank  as  the  river  turned,  to  find  footing  for  our 
horses.  At  first  these  crossings  were  not  difficult, 
but  the  stream  gathered  force  very  rapidly.  On 
the  second  day's  march  down-stream  the  horses 
were  compelled  to  swim  at  almost  every  crossing, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  cross  the  river  thirty  to 
forty  times  daily.  The  men  tried  to  ride  the  horses, 
behind  the  packs,  but  in  swift  streams  they  were 
frequently  thrown  off.  For  three  days  we  swam 
and  forded  this  icy  stream,  and  then  we  were 
aroused  to  the  dangers  of  the  task  through  an 
accident  in  which  a  man  and  a  horse  were  carried 
down-stream  and  thrown  against  a  cliff.  A  sim- 
ilar accident  was  likely  to  occur  at  any  time.  The 
horses  could  not  be  taken  much  farther.  For  the 
safety  of  ourselves  and  our  outfit  we  now  sought 
to  build  a  raft. 

The  Chiilitna  proper  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  glacial  stream,  Bridgman  River,  down  which 
we  came,  and  a  clear-water  stream  of  somewhat 
less  volume,  the  latter  draining  the  extensive 
low  country  towards  the  head  waters  of  the  Cant- 
well  River.  About  two  miles  below  this  fork  the 
canyon  was  considerably  broken  down,  and  here 
we  found  small  flats  covered  with  tall  cottonwood 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     89 

trees.  In  the  absence  of  better  wood  we  camped 
here  and  built  a  raft.  The  cottonwood  trees  were 
fifteen  inches  thick,  about  eighty  feet  high,  remark- 
ably straight,  and  free  from  limbs.  We  cut  logs 
thirteen  feet  long  and  carried  them  to  a  conven- 
ient launching  place,  where  we  fastened  them  with 
cross-bars,  lashed  by  ropes,  making  two  tiers  about 
eight  feet  wide.  After  the  raft  was  finished  we 
learned  to  our  sorrow  that  it  would  barely  carry 
two  men.  The  wood  was  evidently  too  heavy 
for  raft-building. 

Printz  and  Miller  floated  the  raft,  while  the 
others  followed  with  the  horses.  The  stream  got 
larger,  more  rapid,  and  ever  more  dangerous  to 
swim.  After  having  gone  only  two  miles  we  saw 
dry  spruce  trees  a  short  distance  westward  up  a 
large  creek  of  clear  water.  Here  we  camped  and 
built  two  good  rafts,  and  then  came  the  sad  task 
of  leaving  our  horses.  Good,  faithful  animals  they 
had  been;  it  seemed  heartless  to  leave  them  to 
meet  an  almost  certain  death,  either  as  a  result 
of  deep  snow  or  from  the  onslaught  of  wolves. 
Each  man  had  among  the  animals  one  or  two 
pets,  and  no  one  had  the  boldness  to  deliberately 
kill  any  of  the  noble  creatures.  The  grass  was  good 
here,  and  we  argued  that  when  the  deep  winter 
snow  came  they  might  possibly  dig  under  it  and 
find  a  bare  subsistence.  On  this  clear  stream, 
about  eighteen  miles  north  of  the  big  glacier,  we 
left  seven  of  the  finest  and  most  faithful  horses  that 
ever  traversed  the  wilds  of  Alaska.     We  after- 


go     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

ward  learned  that  all  the  animals  were  still  living 
after  two  winters. 

Taking  to  the  rafts,  we  quickly  descended  the 
Chulitna  through  a  series  of  small  canyons  divided 
by  cross-canyons.  Early  in  the  afternoon  of 
September  19th,  w^e  camped  on  a  bar  about  eight 
miles  southeast  of  the  moraine  of  a  great  glacier. 
The  lower  end  of  this  glacier  had  been  partly 
charted  by  government  parties,  but  nothing  was 
known  of  its  upper  reaches.  We  now  set  for  our- 
selves the  task  of  exploring  this  glacier,  and  over 
it  the  eastern  slopes  of  Mt.  McKinley,  w^hich  had 
not  yet  been  seen  by  us. 

Somewhat  later  we  discovered  a  smaller  glacier 
about  twenty-five  miles  south  which  drains  the 
eastern  slopes  of  Mt.  McKinley.  These  two  glaciers 
I  have  named  in  honour  of  my  wife  and  daughter, 
the  larger  Fidele  Glacier  and  the  smaller  Ruth 
Glacier. 

With  our  outfit  and  supplies  for  three  days 
packed  in  our  rucksacks,  we  ascended  the  terminal 
moraine  on  the  following  morning,  and  then 
climbed  for  eight  miles  over  the  most  wonderful 
accumulation  of  glacial  debris  that  I  had  ever 
•seen.  At  the  first  bend  we  left  the  glacier,  and 
ascended  the  steep  slopes  of  a  series  of  mountains, 
from  which  we  hoped  to  see  the  course  of  the  gla- 
cier and  the  eastern  face  of  the  great  peak. 


CHAPTER  IX 
Down  the  Susitna. — Around  the  Alaska  Range 

THOUGH  our  mountaineering  ambitions 
were  hopelessly  frustrated  we  had  suc- 
ceeded in  pushing  around  and  through  the  Alaska 
Range  over  unexplored  country.  We  therefore 
added  a  good  deal  of  material  to  the  annals  of 
pioneer  research.  Before  leaving  the  cloud  pierc- 
ing spires  of  Mt.  McKinley  we  had  planned  to  make 
a  rapid  reconnoissance  of  its  eastern  approaches 
and  thus  obtain  data  for  a  future  expedition. 
For  this  purpose  we  now  followed  Fiddle  Glacier 
into  the  foothills,  seeking  to  reach  a  favourable 
point  of  observation. 

We  climbed  to  an  elevation  of  six  thousand 
feet,  but  then  our  progress  was  barred  by  cliffs. 
From  here,  however,  we  were  able  to  map  Fiddle 
Glacier  and  a  large  mountain  area.  The  glacier 
starts  from  the  north-east  ridge  of  Mt.  McKinley 
and  flows  almost  due  east  for  fifteen  miles, 
where  it  receives  a  large  arm  from  the  north. 
Five  miles  south-east  of  this  another  arm  swells 
the  bulk  of  the  great  icy  stream,  and  then  it  takes 
a  circular  course,  swinging  toward  the  Chulitna. 
Its  face  is  about  seven  miles  wide,  its  length  is  about 

91 


92     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

fort)-  miles,  and  the  lower  ten  miles  are  so  thor- 
oughly weighted  down  by  broken  stone — the  pro- 
duct of  landslides — that  no  ice  is  visible.  It  is 
thus  the  largest  interior  glacier  of  Alaska,  and  it 
probably  carries  more  moraine  material  than  any 
other  known  glacier. 

Mt.  McKinley  from  the  east  gives  a  much 
clearer  impression  of  great  altitude.  We  could 
not  see  the  lower  ten  thousand  feet,  but  the 
upper  slopes  though  difficult  are  more  nearly 
accessible  than  those  of  the  west.  The  upper 
ten  thousand  feet  are  rounded  like  a  beehive, 
and  three  spurs  offer  resting  places  for  glacier  ice, 
over  which  it  was  thought  a  route  to  the  summit 
might  perhaps  be  found. 

The  season  had  now  so  far  advanced  that  if  we 
cared  to  avoid  being  detained  for  the  winter,  we 
saw  that  we  must  take  to  our  rafts  quickly  and 
descend  the  Chulitna  River.  We  had  still  to 
raft  sixty  miles  of  an  unknown  stream.  Our 
supply  of  provisions  was  nearly  exhausted,  we 
were  hatless  and  almost  shoeless,  and  our  clothing 
was  torn  into  rags. 

Returning  to  the  rafts  at  noon  we  quickly 
packed  our  belongings  to  start  down-stream.  The 
river  as  we  descended  split  into  numerous  channels 
and  spread  over  a  wide  flat.  Rafting  was  very 
difficult, — the  water  was  so  shallow  that  the  rafts 
went  aground  every  few  miles.  To  float  them 
we  were  compelled  to  jump  into  the  water  and 
push.     The  raft  would  suddenly  slip   into  deep 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     93 

water  and  we  would  be  forced  to  hold  on  and 
crawl  out  on  the  logs  like  water  rats.  This  rafting 
life  was  very  exciting  — plunging  from  wide 
foaming  rapids  into  the  boiling  deep  of  narrow 
channels,  at  a  railroad  pace,  under  overhanging 
trees,  over  great  boulders,  and  into  dangerous 
log  jams.  We  were  kept  dodging  dangers  from 
every  side,  the  raft  with  its  precious  load  of 
records  and  instruments  was  under  water  often, 
but  we  were  making  good  progress  to  the  coast, 
and  all  of  our  hardships  were  belittled  by  this 
pleasant  prospect. 

About  twenty  miles  below  Fiddle  Glacier  we 
noted  the  moraine  of  Ruth  Glacier  which  pours  its 
ice  through  a  deep  gap  leading  to  the  northern 
face  of  Mt.  McKinley.  From  the  glacier  came  a 
vigorous  stream — the  Tokositna;  and  at  this  junc- 
tion the  Chulitna  made  a  sharp  bend  easterly 
and  soon  after  an  equally  sharp  turn  southerly, 
plunging  into  a  second  canyon.  As  the  rafts 
went  rushing  through  the  canyon  on  the  following 
morning,  judging  from  the  rapid  drop  of  the  river 
bed  and  the  abrupt  walls  of  the  canyon,  we  began 
to  look  for  dangerous  falls.  The  river  so  far 
as  we  knew  had  not  been  rafted  or  boated  before 
and  there  was  good  ground  for  expecting  a  Niagara 
below.  To  guard  against  such  a  drop  we  kept 
a  rope  coiled  and  a  man  ready  to  jump  off  and 
swim  ashore.  The  prospect  for  the  swimmer  was 
not  a  pleasant  one  but  we  were  not  forced  to 
test  the  method  of  precaution. 


94     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

As  we  were  emerging  from  the  gloomy  canyons 
we  spied  two  tents  on  a  bar  of  silt.  The  sight 
of  these  tents  created  quite  a  commotion  among 
the  rafters.  It  was  the  first  speck  of  human  life 
outside  of  our  own  party  either  white  or  red 
which  we  had  seen  in  nearly  four  months.  Aside 
from  the  joy  of  meeting  a  fellow-creature  in  a 
far-off  wilderness,  we  were  keenly  interested  in 
the  chances  of  getting  needful  supplies.  Not 
that  we  were  nearing  starvation,  for  we  had 
plenty  of  moose  meat,  pemmican,  and  beans, 
but  we  had  nothing  else.  With  a  good  deal 
of  excitement  we  pulled  ashore  and  found  there 
two  groups  of  prospectors  sluicing  gold.  They 
believed  themselves  the  only  people  in  this  part 
of  the  world  and  we  were  pretty  sure  that  we  were 
the  only  adventurers  about  Mt.  McKinley.  A 
good  deal  of  explanation  followed  while  we  were 
marched  to  a  tent  where  some  one  detected  the 
odour  of  fresh  bread  and  bacon,  things  foreign 
to  our  camp  for  some  time.  The  miners  had 
had  no  fresh  meat  for  three  months  but  they  had 
everything  else  which  we  wanted  and  we  had 
an  abundance  of  moose  meat,  somewhat  black 
and  gamey  because  of  its  long  journey  from  the 
west,  but  still  it  was  meat.  In  exchange  for  this 
meat  we  got  sugar,  tea,  salt,  and  tobacco.  We 
were  told  that  the  river  was  clear  below,  that  we 
could  reach  the  trading  post  at  the  station  with 
our  rafts  in  two  days. 

We  lost  very  little  time  for  the  water  in  the 


BRIDGMAN   RIVER 
The  junction  of  Bridgman  River  and  the  Chul'.tna 


THE   MT.    McKINLEY    CAKIBUU 


OUT  OF  THE  CLOUDS  DOWN  TO  THE  CHULITXA 


OVER  AN  ICE    BRIDGE 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT     95 

river  was  lowering  and  the  temperature  was  falling 
fast.  There  were  still  thirty  miles  of  the  trouble- 
some Chulitna,  with  its  tumbling  shallow  streams, 
before  we  could  get  into  the  deeper  water  of  the 
Susitna.  In  coming  out  of  the  Chulitna  we  ran 
aground  often,  and  were  frequently  entangled 
in  snags.  A  few  miles  below  the  forks  we  camped 
at  a  point  from  which  we  got  a  splendid  view  of 
the  four  great  peaks  of  the  Bolshoy  group. 

Looking  over  a  low  tree-covered  country  we 
saw  rolling  foothills  leading  to  sharp  black  peaks 
and  beyond  the  perpetual  snow  of  the  Alaska 
Range. 

Floating  down  the  Susitna  was  a  delight  com- 
pared to  our  troubles  on  the  Chulitna.  The 
beautiful  autumn  foliage,  the  clear  winter  air, 
the  migrating  birds,  and  the  absence  of  mosquitoes 
made  rafting  down  this  great  river  of  mud  a  fitting 
termination  to  a  series  of  very  hard  exploits.  At 
the  station  we  secured  an  old  dory  and  in  it  we 
paddled  down  the  lower  Susitna  through  the  delta 
into  the  treacherous  waters  of  Cook  Inlet.  We 
arrived  at  Tyonok  on  September  26th,  just  four 
months  after  our  start.  In  that  time  we  had 
walked  over  seven  hundred  miles,  and  by  boat  and 
raft  we  had  travelled  three  hundred  miles;  we 
had  explored  a  good  deal  of  new  territory;  we 
had  ascended  Mt.  McKinley  to  eleven  thousand 
four  hundred  feet,  encircled  the  McKinley  group, 
and  had  made  a  fair  geological  and  botanical 
collection.     Altogether    we    had    done    all    that 


96     TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

determined    human    effort    could    in    the    short 
interval  of  an  Alaskan  summer. 

Mt.  McKinley  offers  a  unique  challenge  to 
mountaineers,  but  its  ascent  will  prove  a  prodigious 
task.  It  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  North  America, 
the  steepest  mountain  in  the  world,  and  the  most 
arctic  of  all  great  mountains.  Its  slopes  are 
weighted  down  with  all  the  snow  and  ice  that 
can  possibly  find  a  resting  place,  but  unlike  Mt. 
St.  Elias,  the  glaciation  is  not  such  as  to  offer 
a  route  over  continuous  ice.  The  area  of  this 
mountain  is  far  inland,  in  the  heart  of  a  most 
difficult  and  trackless  country,  making  the  trans- 
portation of  men  and  supplies  a  very  arduous 
task.  The  thick  underbrush,  the  endless  marshes, 
and  the  myriads  of  vicious  mosquitoes  bring  to  the 
traveller  the  troubles  of  the  tropics.  The  neces- 
sity for  fording  and  swimming  icy  streams,  the 
almost  perpetual  cold  rains,  the  camps  in  high 
altitudes  on  glaciers  in  snows  and  violent  storms 
bring  to  the  traveller  all  of  the  discomforts  of  the 
arctic  explorer.  The  very  difficult  slopes  com- 
bined with  high  altitude  effects  add  the  troubles 
of  the  worst  alpine  climbs.  The  prospective 
conqueror  of  America's  culminating  peak  will  be 
amply  rewarded,  but  he  must  be  prepared  to 
withstand  the  tortures  of  the  torrids,  the  discom- 
forts of  the  north  pole  seeker,  combined  with  the 
hardships  of  the  Matterhorn  ascents  multiplied 
many  times. 


PART  II 
THE  EXPEDITION  OF  1906 


CHAPTER   I 
With  the  Prospector  into  a  New  Gold  Country 

THE  opportunity  to  renew  the  attack  on  Mt. 
McKinley  did  not  again  present  itself  until 
the  spring  of  1 906.  I  had  taken  up  mountaineering 
to  offset  the  home-destroying  call  of  the  Arctic  but 
this  first  taste  of  mid-Alaskan  life  with  its  sheen 
of  mountain  magnificence,  its  haunts  of  big  wild 
animals,  and  its  gamble  in  gold  and  copper  mines 
instilled  an  intoxication  worse  than  the  return 
habit  of  polar  travellers.  Alaska  to-day  is  a  land 
of  boundless  opportunities.  It  is  the  richest  gold- 
bearing  region  in  the  world.  Copper  and  other 
minerals  promise  great  return.  The  fisheries  and 
the  big  game  will  interest  many  for  long  years; 
but  to  mountaineers  it  is  sure  to  be  a  stamping 
ground  in  the  immediate  future,  for  those  who  like 
ourselves  are  bent  on  first  ascents. 

While  at  Seattle,  outfitting  for  our  second  alpine 
campaign,  we  soon  became  infected  with  the  rest- 
less spirit  of  the  prospectors.  All  Seattle  and  the 
Pacific  coast  was  on  the  verge  of  a  renewed 
Klondyke  stampede,  but  no  focus  had  been  fixed 
for  the  rush.  The  greatest  enthusiasm  was  directed 
towards  the  district  surrounding  Mt.  McKinley, 

99 


loo    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

and  the  head  waters  of  the  Kuskokwim,  the  Kant- 
ishatna,  and  the  Yentna  were  specifically  outlined 
as  promising  ground.  All  of  this  was  happily  in  line 
with  our  work  of  climbing  and  exploration. 

After  a  month  of  great  anxiety  and  hard  work 
there  was  a  sudden  lull,  the  engines  puffed,  and 
the  steamer  Santa  Ana,  with  a  cargo  of  Alaskan 
dreamers,  including  ourselves,  their  weird  outfits 
and  horses,  was  en  route  for  the  great  land  of  pro- 
mise, the  golden  north. 

Gliding  softly  through  Puget  Sound  on  the  morn- 
ing of  May  1 6th,  we  admired  at  long  range  the 
snowy  crests  of  the  coast  mountains,  comparing 
the  various  peaks  with  Mt.  McKinley  against 
which  our  efforts  were  directed.  Along  the  rugged 
shores  of  Vancouver  Island,  into  the  remarkable 
chain  of  evergreen  islands,  through  an  inland  sea 
of  quiet  grandeur  to  Juneau,  four  days  and  three 
nights  we  breathed  a  balmy  atmosphere,  feasted 
upon  wonderous  scenery,  and  learned  much  of  the 
mission  of  Alaskan  travel.  Every  one  was  after 
gold  or  copper  or  tin,  or  some  mineral  which  was 
to  bring  sudden  and  easy  riches.  Poor  fellows! 
— all  intoxicated  with  the  gold  fever,  or  yellow 
peril  as  we  styled  the  prospector's  spirit.  Four 
months  afterward  many  of  these  men  returned 
depressed,  melancholy,  and  cursing  their  fate,  but 
in  another  year  they  will  again  be  on  the  same 
chase  after  the  elusive  glitter  of  the  yellow  metal. 

Juneau  is  the  new  capital  of  Alaska.     It  has 
long   been   the   business   centre  of  south-eastern 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    loi 

Alaska  but  Sitka  had  previously  retained  the 
government  and  its  honours  mostly  because  it 
was  in  earlier  days  the  most  active  town.  Juneau 
owes  its  present  importance  to  the  great  quanti- 
ties of  low-grade  gold-bearing  quartz  discovered 
in  its  vicinity.  The  town  is  seemingly  set  in  steps 
cut  out  of  steep  mountain  slopes,  picturesque 
beyond  description,  but  with  the  present  outlook 
of  earthquake  results,  the  town  site  is  in  great 
danger.  It  would  need  but  a  slight  shake  to  bury 
the  city  under  mountains  of  rock.  Juneau  people 
however  ridicule  this  idea  quite  as  the  people 
of  Valparaiso  did,  and  are  perfectly  willing  to 
trust  to  fate.  The  Santa  Ana  tied  to  the  dock 
early,  but  the  town  was  open  full  blast.  The  big 
Treadwell  stamping  mills  on  Douglass  Island  were 
sending  up  huge  cones  of  smoke.  From  the  chim- 
neys of  almost  every  house  of  both  towns  there 
came  jets  of  smoke  rising  into  the  clear  crisp  air 
between  the  great  cliffs  which  surrounded  the 
vicinity. 

The  run  to  Sitka  was  serenely  delightful,  but  the 
town  had  profited  little  during  the  three  years 
which  intervened  between  our  visits.  A  new- 
series  of  totem  poles  had  been  erected.  The  Greek 
church  had  been  painted,  but  the  place  presented 
a  study  for  the  tourists  interested  in  the  Alaska 
of  yesterday.  To  the  passengers  of  the  Santa  Ana, 
the  prospector,  the  nimrod,  and  the  mountaineer, 
who  were  interested  in  the  modern  awakening  of 
Alaska,  Sitka  had  little  to  offer.    In  leaving  Sitka 


I02   TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

we  plunged  from  the  quiet  inland  seas  out  on  the 
ever  stormy  swell  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska,  and  then 
the  drift  of  conversation  rose  from  seasickness  to 
the  bigness  of  Alaska. 

Like  all  new  countries  Alaska  is  overrated  and 
underrated  by  the  pioneers.  It  is  put  down  as  an 
arctic  desert  or  as  a  semi-tropical  Eldorado.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  this  great  northland  has  within  its 
boundless  limits  both  the  worst  arctic  temperature 
and  the  most  agreeable  temperate  climate.  In 
the  interior  north-east  it  is  colder  in  winter  than  at 
the  North  Pole,  while  the  south-west,  moderated 
by  the  Japan  current,  has  a  climate  comparable  to 
that  of  Baltimore. 

Alaska  is  a  large  country.  Its  coast  line  with 
its  enormous  indentations  is  said  to  be  equal  to 
the  circumference  of  the  globe.  It  is  twelve  times 
as  large  as  the  State  of  New  York.  It  contains 
some  of  the  greatest  rivers  of  the  world,  and  there 
is  surely  no  place  on  earth  where  there  are  such 
picturesque  mountain  areas. 

We  stopped,  among  other  places,  at  Orcha,  and 
since  everybody  was  eager  to  get  to  Cordova,  a 
new  boom  town  from  which  a  railroad  is  projected 
into  the  Copper  River  coimtry,  we  followed  the  ex- 
citement. After  wading  through  mud  and  swamp 
we  finally  found  ourselves  in  a  narrow  gorge  near 
a  small  lake,  a  central  street  lined  on  both  sides  for 
three  hundred  feet  by  shanties  and  tents  filled  by 
men  in  various  stages  of  intoxication,  all  trying 
to  sell  town  lots  and  whiskey.    Browne  and  Parker 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  103 

entered  one  place  more  attractive  than  others 
where  a  phonograph  was  noising  popular  airs. 
Browne  asked  for  the  cylinder  "Absence  Makes 
the  Heart  Grow  Fonder."  The  bartender  sang 
out  in  a  loud  voice:  "  We  ain't  got  it,  but  we  have 
what  makes  the  jag  grow  longer." 

There  is  a  great  difficulty  in  getting  men  to  work 
on  the  Alaskan  railroads.  Agents  of  the  road 
secure  men  at  Seattle,  furnish  them  with  trans- 
portation and  other  expenses,  and  send  them  to 
Alaska.  These  men  as  a  rule  are  of  the  hard  luck 
type,  ready  to  jump  at  anything  in  haste  and  regret 
at  leisure.  On  the  Santa  Ana  there  were  about  one 
hundred  men  for  the  Alaska  Central  Railroad  at 
Seward,  and  most  of  these  yielded  to  the  boom 
spirit  at  Cordova,  remaining  to  work  on  the  Copper 
River  Railroad.  When  we  arrived  at  Valdez  and 
Seward,  about  one  half  of  the  people  were  eager 
to  rush  to  Cordova  to  take  advantage  of  the  boom 
while  the  others  were  eager  to  get  to  the  Yentna 
diggings.  We  might  easily  have  secured  two 
hundred  recruits  for  the  effort  to  climb  Mt.  McKin- 
ley,  but  previous  experience  had  taught  me  that 
prospectors  eager  to  get  to  a  new  diggings  are  of 
little  use  as  helpers  in  an  exploring  enterprise. 

At  Seldovia  we  were  forced  to  transship  to  a 
smaller  steamer  to  take  us  up  Cook  Inlet.  We 
anchored  off  Tyonok  on  the  29th  day  of  May,  and 
began  at  once  to  establish  ourselves  on  shore. 

Our  outfit  was  a  very  large  one.  We  were  pre- 
pared to  push  a  party  of  ten  men  to  Mt.  McKinley 


I04  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

and  continue  a  siege  for  five  months.  A  double 
system  of  transportation  was  planned  for  this 
purpose.  A  pack  train  of  twenty  horses  purchased 
from  the  Yakima  Indians  as  before  was  to  move 
supplies  across  country,  and  a  specially  constructed 
motor  boat  was  planned  to  ascend  the  large  east- 
erly rivers.  Our  food  for  the  low  country  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  prospector — flour,  bacon, 
beans,  and  the  various  accessories  packed  in  water- 
proof bags  of  fifty  pounds  each.  There  is  no  dock 
and  no  lighter  at  Tyonok.  So  our  things  were 
thrown  into  dories  and  pushed  through  the  surf 
by  Indian  boatmen  to  a  wide  sand  spit.  While 
some  of  the  party  watched  this  task  and  kept  a 
check  on  our  baggage,  others  were  preparing  the 
horses  for  their  exciting  plunge.  The  animals  were 
raised  in  slings  and  lowered  into  the  rushing  cold 
waters  to  swim  ashore.  With  the  motor  boat  and 
dories  we  tried  to  guide  the  snorting  animals  to  the 
nearest  beach  but  often  they  chose  their  own  way 
and  gave  us  an  exhilarating  chase. 

Several  horses  were  nearly  lost  in  this  effort,  only 
the  speed  of  the  launch  and  the  ingenuity  of  our 
packers  Printz  and  Barrille  made  their  rescue 
possible.  Later  the  vessel  steamed  closer  to  the 
shore  and  went  aground  to  make  the  task  of  the 
horses  easier  and  then  they  were  quickly  thrown 
over  and  as  quickly  the  shivering  creatures  swam 
for  the  shore,  but  as  they  did  a  group  of  Indian 
dogs  that  had  assembled  made  an  assault.  Many 
of  the  first  horses  turned  their  hoofs  at  the  howling 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  105 

creatures,  but  later  another  assault  was  made  and 
the  wildest  horses  stampeded,  four  towards  Mt. 
Redoubt  and  two  northward  along  the  shore. 

One  half  of  our  baggage  and  outfit  was  put  into 
the  launch  and  then  the  boat  was  anchored  in  the 
stream;  the  other  things  were  taken  ashore  by 
the  Indians  under  the  guidance  of  Mr.  Finch,  the 
local  storekeeper.  In  due  time  we  packed  our 
things  from  the  mud  of  the  beach,  made  a  pile 
above  high-water  line,  covered  it  to  keep  the  rain 
and  the  dogs  off,  and  then  pitched  a  big  tent  and 
placed  in  it  a  Yukon  stove  burning  coal  which  we 
gathered  from  the  beach. 

Without  any  special  orders  on  my  part  every 
man  quickly  devoted  himself  to  his  special  vocation. 
Porter  with  his  numerous  instruments  hustled 
about  to  get  the  local  time,  the  latitude  and 
longitude,  and  also  a  base  line  for  triangulation. 
Parker  with  the  hypsometer  and  barometers 
made  sea-level  observations  for  future  altitude 
determination.  Miller  with  all  kinds  of  cameras 
posed  the  Indians  and  snapped  picturesque  effects. 
Altogether  it  was  a  busy  day. 


CHAPTER  II 

Preparations  for  the  Cross-Country  March. 
— ^Motor-Boating  in  Cook  Inlet 

AT  ABOUT  three  o'clock  May  30th,  as  the  sun 
was  dashing  the  Kenai  sky  with  crimson, 
and  the  countless  dogs  began  their  morning  howl, 
we  crawled  from  the  blankets  and  tumbled  out 
into  the  frosty  air.  The  scene  was  superb;  the 
big  volcanoes  Redoubt  and  lUiamna,  dressed  in 
snowy  cloaks  of  purple  blue,  belched  columns  of 
dark  vapour,  while  the  purple  waters  of  the 
Inlet  gently  lapping  the  gravel  bars  and  the  sky 
perfectly  clear  promised  a  good  day;  so  leaving 
Printz,  Barrille,  and  Beecher  to  corral  the  horses, 
while  Parker  and  Ball  were  to  do  some  unpacking, 
all  others  embarked  on  the  launch  and  turned 
the  screw  to  kicking  us  toward  Mt.  McKinley  to 
transport  the  first  load  of  supplies  up  the  Susitna 
River. 

The  launch  had  been  built  in  Seattle  along  lines 
necessary  to  cope  with  the  shallow,  swift  streams 
rushing  down  the  eastern  dra:inage  of  Mt.  Mc- 
Kinley. She  was  forty  feet  long,  seven  feet  wide, 
with  an  extreme  draft  of  twenty  inches.  The 
model  was  somewhat  after  the  lines  of  a  Peter- 

106 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  107 

borough  canoe.  The  power  was  supplied  by  a 
twenty-five  horse-power  Automarine  engine  (Lo- 
zier)  with  the  propeller  in  a  tunnel.  The  boat  was 
also  fitted  for  oars  and  sails.  The  engine  weighed 
775  pounds,  and  the  entire  boat  but  three  thousand 
pounds.  A  river  boat  on  the  Susitna  needs  also 
to  be  a  good  sea  boat,  for  the  waters  of  Cook  Inlet 
are  very  treacherous  As  a  powerful  river  boat 
and  a  safe  sea  craft  our  launch  was  a  great  success. 

With  the  tide  running  eight  miles  per  hour  and 
the  speed  of  the  launch  about  twelve  miles  per 
hour,  we  rushed  up  Cook  Inlet  at  a  pace  that 
seemed  like  railroad  travel.  In  less  than  two 
hours  we  reached  the  head  of  Cook  Inlet  and  then 
with  a  diminished  speed  we  moved  over  the  end- 
less tide  flats  of  the  delta,  and  though  the  river 
has  a  mouth  five  miles  wide  we  missed  the  main 
channels  and  found  ourselves  en  route  for  Knick 
when  the  tide  turned.  At  last  we  noticed  an  open- 
ing into  the  low  meadows  from  the  east  and  fol- 
lowing this  we  ascended  the  muddy  waters  still 
on  bars  of  silt,  in  water  less  than  three  feet  deep. 
We  were  aground  every  few  minutes  and  thus 
drew  up  water  thickened  with  mud  which  fouled 
our  check  valves  and  filled  the  cylinder  jackets 
with  clay  which  soon  baked.  This  was  a  new 
trouble  for  a  power  launch  to  contend  with  and 
it  proved  to  be  our  greatest  trouble  throughout  the 
summer. 

With  two  men  sounding  we  managed  to  find 
channels  where  we  were  just  about  able  to  get 


io8  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

through,  but  the  task  was  a  most  difficult  one. 
In  about  two  hours  we  got  into  deeper  channels, 
and  then  it  took  us  four  hotirs  more  to  ascend  ten 
miles  against  a  very  swift  stream  to  Susitna 
Station. 

The  Station  had  changed  much  since  our  last 
visit.  The  Indians  had  decreased  in  numbers 
and  pitched  their  camps  near  the  trading  post. 
Several  new  log  huts  were  seen  scattered  among 
the  trees  and  brush.  The  town  now  had  a  sa- 
loon, a  trading  post,  and  a  roadhouse.  Altogether 
there  were  about  twenty  prospectors'  shacks  and 
an  equal  number  of  Indian  camps.  The  rush 
for  gold  toward  Mt.  McKinley  made  the  Station 
an  im.portant  place. 

Mr.  Frank  Churchill,  the  manager  of  the  trading 
post,  very  kindly  placed  a  log  cabin  at  our  disposal, 
into  which  we  placed  our  boatload  of  things,  and 
in  it  also  we  camped  for  the  night.  The  next 
morning  at  about  ten  o'clock  we  were  ready  to 
start  down-stream,  aiming  to  catch  the  tide  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  at  about  noon.  Having 
had  so  much  trouble  in  going  aground  we  decided 
to  add  a  river  pilot  to  our  party.  Stephen,  the  son 
of  the  Chief,  was  secured.  He  was  a  trustworthy 
and  intelligent  young  man  who  had  been  in  our 
employ  on  our  previous  expedition.  Stephen 
took  the  helm  and  guided  us  very  well,  jumping 
tree  trunks  and  gravel  bars  as  occasion  demanded. 
The  shore  line  was  rushing  past  at  the  rate  of 
fifteen  miles  an  hour  and  after   a   half-hour   of 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  109' 

Indian  pilotage  we  decided  that  a  better  know- 
ledge of  power  boating  was  raore  important  than 
an  expert  knowledge  of  the  river  bottom.  So 
Miller  took  the  wheel.  We  had  much  trouble 
at  this  time,  mostly  because  the  pump  was  often 
being  fouled  by  the  great  quantity  of  glacial  silt 
suspended  in  the  water.  The  carbureter,  too, 
was  giving  trouble  because  of  water  in  the  gasoline, 
and  our  downward  trip  was  far  from  a  happy  one. 
Fortunately  it  was  easy  for  us  to  ship  oars  and 
thus  control  the  boat  as  she  floated  down-stream 
while  the  engines  were  being  adjusted. 

Porter  desired  to  climb  Mt.  Susitna  and  Browne 
volunteered  to  join  the  venture.  They  desired 
to  go  light  as  the  launch  was  expected  back  in 
two  days,  and  therefore  little  food  was  taken 
with  them  when  they  left  us  at  Alexander,  a 
deserted  Indian  village.  Since  we  had  been 
much  delayed  we  hastened  down-stream  to 
catch  the  tide  by  the  westerly  channel.  The  boat 
now  ran  splendidly,  but  as  we  neared  the  tide- 
water through  the  delta  we  noticed  that  the 
tide  was  already  going  out  fast,  but  we  kept  on, 
our  pilot  saying  it  was  all  right.  Passing  out  of 
the  river  and  heading  past  an  island  upon  which 
a  barrel  was  placed  we  found  the  water  rather 
deep,  six  to  eight  feet.  With  the  brown  water 
boiling  behind  us  we  went  along  in  great  glee,  but 
soon  after  real  dangers  were  at  hand.  The  water 
shallowed,  a  heavy  sea  rolled  under  the  bow,  the 
engine  stopped,  the  boat  pounded  lightly,  we  were 


no  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

agroimd,  and  the  tide  was  fast  going  out.  In  less 
than  half  an  hour  there  were  fifty  square  miles 
of  muddy  flats  about  in  place  of  the  chocolate- 
coloured  water.  There  was  no  shore-line  with- 
in five  miles  of  us,  nor  was  there  wood  or  water. 
We  tried  the  surface  water  before  it  left  us, 
and  found  it  drinkable,  though  salty  and  thick 
with  mud.  We  took  the  precaution  to  dip  up  a 
pail  of  this  before  it  left  us.  We  drank  this 
water  and  ate  some  crackers,  then  threw  out 
an  anchor  and  without  blankets  we  spread  life 
preservers  on  the  floor  and  tried  to  sleep  until 
such  time  when  the  tide  might  return  and  lift  us 
off. 

The  night  proved  dark  and  the  clouds  came  out 
of  Turnagain  Arm  with  a  speed  which  indicated 
a  blow.  We  slept  little  but  listened  to  the  roar 
of  the  great  waves  as  they  neared  us.  At  about 
twelve  o'clock  midnight,  the  boat  was  afloat  and 
soon  after  we  put  on  power  and  headed  the  swell 
and  the  wind.  The  seas  rose  and  the  wind  in- 
creased and  white  caps  formed  on  every  side. 
I  suggested  to  our  pilot  that  we  make  for  Fire 
Island,  but  Stephen  said,  "  I  think  all  right,  river 
good,"  from  which  we  understood  that  he  thought 
a  course  back  into  the  river  and  later  for  Tyonok 
was  all  right  but  that  he  preferred  to  return  to  the 
river.  We  didn't  like  the  idea  of  heading  for  ten 
miles  of  mud  flats  in  the  darkness  with  a  howling 
gale  behind  us.  So  I  said,  "  River  no  good — 
Tyonok  good."     He  replied  with  a  grunt  and  some 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT   in 

Indian  mutterings  which  I  took  to  be  swear  words 
for  the  tone  in  which  the  utterances  came  was  not 
indicative  of  good  humour.  But  for  Tyonok  we 
headed.  The  seas  now  began  to  break  over  the 
bow  and  the  wind  carried  the  spray  into  Stephen's 
face  with  an  ugly  force.  With  each  rush  of 
water  the  boy  would  grunt  and  let  drop  an  ugly 
Indian  word.  After  about  a  half-hour  at  the 
wheel  Stephen  said  "Me  plenty  sick,"  and  Miller 
and  I  might  have  said  "  Me  too,"  but  we  did  not 
confess.  We  had  been  nursing  the  engine,  for 
either  the  pump  or  the  carbureter  was  balking  fre- 
quently. The  boat  had  no  ballast  and  under 
the  violent  pitching  of  the  sea  we  were  only  able 
to  crawl  around  in  the  dark,  not  daring  to  light 
a  lantern  because  we  detected  gasoline  vapours. 
Miller  took  the  wheel  to  relieve  Stephen  and  he 
too  got  soaked  from  head  to  foot  in  the  first 
few  minutes.  By  two  o'clock  there  was  a  little 
burst  of  light  in  the  east  and  now  we  figured  we 
were  far  enough  away  from  the  dangerous  shallows 
to  set  a  course  for  Tyonok.  The  altered  course 
brought  the  seas  to  our  fore  quarter  but  we 
could  not  use  full  power  because  the  boat  would 
hit  the  seas  dangerously  hard.  Thus  we  took 
the  seas  as  easily  as  possible  while  the  tide  carried 
us  southward.  By  daybreak,  about  3:30,  we 
pushed  behind  the  spit  at  Tyonok,  dropped  anchor, 
and  blew  our  fog  horn  for  a  boat  to  take  us 
off.  We  were  hungry,  exhausted,  and  cold,  but 
Prof.  Parker  had   the  cook  prepare   a  meal  for 


112  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

us  before  we  got  ashore,  and  food  never  tasted 
better. 

The  six  horses  which  had  stampeded  were  still 
at  large ;  no  trace  having  been  found  of  them.  To 
make  the  search  more  thorough  we  decided  to  run 
the  launch  fifty  or  sixty  miles  south  on  the  next 
tide  and  land  wherever  we  could  to  trail  the 
horses.  Ball  was  sent  in  saddle  along  the  sandy 
shore-line,  while  Printz  and  Barrille  joined  me  on 
the  launch.  As  the  people  of  the  town  were 
starting  their  fires  we  were  again  on  the  rough 
waters.  The  weather  was  improving,  but  Turn- 
again  Arm  still  had  a  steel-coloured  lustre  in  its 
clouds,  and  vapour  plunged  into  the  Inlet,  which 
did  not  promise  good  weather;  but  we  were  so 
eager  to  start  the  pack  train  on  its  long  trail 
overland  that  we  could  not  afford  to  wait.  We 
passed  in  among  the  big  boulders  of  Trading  Bay 
and  noted  the  dangers  at  low  water.  Here  the 
beach  is  wide  and  the  steep  sandy  bank  three 
hundred  feet  high  leads  to  a  plain  covered  by 
spruce,  birch,  and  Cottonwood  trees.  In  this  bank 
in  various  places  we  saw  thin  strata  of  lignite,  a 
coal  in  which  the  fibre  and  bark  of  trees  are  easily 
made  out,  but  it  seems  to  biirn  well  and  is  said  to  be 
good  steaming  coal. 

The  first  twenty-five  miles  of  this  beach  had 
been  searched  as  we  hastened  on  to  Redoubt  Bay. 
Then  far  out  in  the  mud  fiats  we  saw  some  tracks 
but  after  a  long  search  we  decided  that  if  the 
horses  were  to  be  found  we  must  seek  grassy  low- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  113 

lands  near  the  point  which  separates  the  two 
bays.  Here  we  met  Ball,  whose  luck  was  like  ours. 
He  had  secured  no  definite  trace  of  the  horses. 
We  built  a  camp-fire  and  ate  lunch,  allowed  the 
tide  to  go  out,  leaving  the  launch  on  the  tide 
flats.  Our  camp-fire  was  spread  by  a  sudden 
gale  into  a  forest  fire  close  to  which  we  tried  to 
keep  warm,  but  the  combination  of  ^  smoke  and 
wind  drove  us  into  the  boat  for  shelter.  After 
the  wind  subsided  we  began  another  search  for  the 
horses,  but  could  find  no  further  trace  except  the 
tracks  which  had  been  followed  up  to  the  outer 
tide  flats.  Late  that  night  as  the  tide  was  about 
half  in  we  abandoned  the  horse  chase  and  started 
for  Tyonok.  The  wind  came  in  gusts  and  the  sea 
came  up  in  dangerous  hills.  The  night  was  not 
dark  but  the  light  was  of  such  a  quality  that  we 
could  never  be  sure  of  our  bearings.  The  launch 
laboured  heavily  in  the  tumbling  seas  and  we  were 
quickly  exhausted,  for  we  had  been  three  days 
and  three  nights  without  proper  rest  or  sleep,  and 
food  had  been  only  taken  as  the  conditions  per- 
mitted. Upper  Cook  Inlet  has  no  harbours  and 
seeing  that  the  sea  was  too  rough  to  make  Tyonok 
and  get  ashore,  we  ran  under  a  point  of  land  below 
Tyonok,  dropped  anchor,  and  rode  out  the  storm. 
The  sea  had  broken  over  the  boat  so  much  that 
the  floor  and  about  everything  on  board  was  wet, 
but  we  spread  the  life  preservers  out  and  on  these 
we  slumbered  for  about  two  hours.  With  the 
change  of  the  tide  the  sea  eased,  the  wind  ceased, 


114  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

and  a  warm  sun  made  the  icy  volcanoes  glitter 
at  six  o'clock.  On  the  morning  of  June  2d  we 
tipped  the  anchor,  headed  the  tide,  and  by  eight 
o'clock  we  were  again  at  Tyonok. 


CHAPTER   III 

Through  the  Valley  of  the  Yentna. — Climbing 
Tumbling  Waters  in  a  Motor  Boat 

THE  programme  for  our  campaign,  as  it  had 
been  formulated  to  the  present,  was  to 
explore  the  head  waters  of  the  Yentna  River 
first,  and  from  there  we  expected  to  get  either 
by  the  westerly  or  an  easterly  route  to  the  south- 
west arete  of  Mt.  McKinley.  From  what  we  had 
seen  of  this  area  from  Mt.  Yenlo  we  had  many 
reasons  to  suppose  that  there  was  an  easy  pass 
from  the  Yentna  to  the  Tonzona.  Our  efforts 
were  accordingly  directed  toward  the  big  break 
in  the  Alaska  Range  forming  the  Yentna  Valley. 
The  horses  were  to  go  with  light  packs  cross-coun- 
try to  a  point  at  the  head  of  navigation,  while 
the  boat  with  most  of  our  equipment  was  to  go 
up  the  Yentna  as  far  as  possible. 

We  decided  to  spend  the  day  in  loading  the 
launch  for  her  second  trip  up  the  river  and  also 
to  help  the  packers  prepare  the  pack  outfit  for 
its  great  tramp  through  brush  and  forest,  over 
marsh  and  glacial  streams. 

At  about  noon  June  3d,  Printz,  Barrille,  and 
Beecher  mounted  their  horses  and  we  turned  the 

115 


iio  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

others  loose.  The  train  of  fourteen  horses  bounded 
northward  at  a  rapid  pace,  only  a  few  of  them 
carrying  packs  consisting  of  supplies  for  thirty  days 
and  a  folding  canvas  boat  for  crossing  streams. 
All  the  other  things  were  to  be  carried  by  the 
launch  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Yentna.  It  was 
expected  the  two  horses  that  had  been  chased 
northward  would  be  found  along  this  trail. 

As  the  horses  galloped  up  the  beach  toward 
the  Beluga  River  the  launch  was  started  in  the 
same  direction.  The  sky  was  somewhat  hazy, 
but  the  sea  was  as  smooth  as  a  glacial  lake  with 
a  glimmering  silvery  surface.  The  quiet  town  of 
Tyonok  with  its  busy  prospectors  was  soon  left 
behind.  The  pack  train  moving  at  a  good  pace 
was  seen  for  some  time  edging  along  the  great 
high  banks.  The  boat  cut  the  waters  at  an  aston- 
ishing speed  and  in  less  than  two  hours  we  entered 
the  mouth  of  the  Susitna,  a  distance  of  thirty 
miles,  and  in  another  hour  we  w^ere  at  Alexander 
anxiously  looking  for  Porter  and  Browne  who  had 
been  awaiting  us  with  empty  stomachs  and  eager 
eyes.  They  had  known  nothing  of  our  horse 
troubles  or  the  Cook  Inlet  storms. 

Four  days  had  passed  since  we  left  them,  and 
after  the  first  two  days  they  began  to  realise  their 
isolation.  With  but  two  days'  food  they  had  left 
the  launch  to  climb  Mt.  Susitna,  and  when  their 
task  was  accomplished  the  last  w^as  eaten  and 
then  it  was  a  skirmish  for  food  in  a  deserted  town 
where  but  one  thin,  hungry  dog  broke  the  spell 


^ 


PORTER    SKETCHING   CONTOURS   FROM  ABOVE   THE   CLOUDS 


T .. .  ■■^^*-i 


RACON\ENZE 


f^->f*^^''- 


'.«jk. 


'  J— I 


i\     \ 


it 


Itt 


BEECHEU 


rAKKEK  I'KINIZ  HAKNII.EE 


SUB-ARCTIC   POXD   LILIES 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  117 

of  loneliness.  Hulligans,  a  kind  of  small  fish,  were 
coming  up  stream  in  great  numbers,  and  in  an  old 
house  some  oats  belonging  to  the  Alaskan  Central 
Railroad  were  discovered.  The  oats  and  the  fish 
prepared  with  a  hungry  man's  ingenuity  made 
luxurious  food  for  two  days.  But  then  it  seemed 
as  if  they  might  be  obliged  to  stay  weeks,  and  the 
oats  and  fish  diet  did  not  seem  a  cheerful  prospect. 
However,  they  occupied  themselves  sketching 
the  local  bits  of  nature,  and  when  the  launch 
puffed  up  the  river  a  heavy  weight  of  distress 
vanished. 

We  ate  lunch  at  Alexander  and  then  headed 
up  the  swift  current  for  the  Station.  The  weather 
was  such  that  only  now  and  again  did  we  see  the 
bald  top  of  Mt.  Susitna  with  its  long  tongues  of 
winter  snow  still  resisting  the  summer  heat. 

Mt.  Susitna  is  an  important  landmark.  In 
clear  weather  we  seldom  lost  sight  of  it  within  a 
range  of  fifty  miles  from  either  side.  With  easy 
slopes  the  mountain  rises  out  of  a  low,  marshy 
country  to  an  altitude  of  four  thousand  four  hun- 
dred feet  about  fifteen  miles  above  the  mouth  of 
the  river.  In  its  summit  there  are  said  to  be  copper 
deposits.  At  its  base  is  the  little  town  of  Alexan- 
der with  a  shifting  Indian  population,  getting  its 
subsistence  from  the  run  of  salmon  and  trout. 

The  run  of  the  hulligans  proved  very  exciting. 
We  noted  a  ripple  close  to  the  shore  and  soon 
discovered  that  the  dash  of  water  was  produced 
by  a  small  fish  about  seven  or  eight  inches  long. 


ii8  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

We  followed  them  mile  after  mile  expecting  to  pass 
the  excited  train,  but  it  was  a  continuous  per- 
formance, they  first  rushed  over  and  under  roots, 
through  submerged  brush,  up  into  the  air,  and 
down  with  a  splash,  always  seeming  to  race  with 
the  launch.  Mr.  Porter's  thoughts  ran  to  mathe- 
matics; he  figured  that  the  train  of  huUigans  was 
twelve  inches  wide  and  six  inches  deep  and  that 
it  probably  extended  a  hundred  miles.  Estimat- 
ing the  number  of  fish  in  a  cubic  foot  at  ninety- 
one  and  one  half,  he  went  on  to  so  many  millions 
that  he  gave  it  up,  suggesting  that  we  try  and 
catch  some.  The  launch  was  run  close  to  shore, 
and  its  speed  reduced  to  about  that  of  the  fish, 
then  Porter,  Parker,  and  Miller  grabbed  pell-mell, 
bringing  up  handfuls  of  wriggling,  silvery  crea- 
ttires,  until  the  floor  of  the  boat  was  alive  with 
the  catch.  Browne  was  asleep  in  the  stem  while 
all  this  excitement  was  making  the  air  hilarious. 
He  was  the  accredited  naturalist,  and  it  was 
thought  that  he  should  join  the  sport.  It  occurred 
to  some  one  that  the  fish  should  wake  him ;  and  at 
once  his  blankets  were  alive  w^ith  them;  he  awoke 
with  a  start  and  struck  out  as  if  to  swim,  believing 
himself  in  water,  which  shows  that  a  man's  notion 
of  fish  and  the  sense  of  swimming  are  closely 
associated. 

The  launch  under  full  power  threw  up  the 
muddy  spume  in  angry  whirls  and  pushed  forward 
with  a  force  inconceivable  against  rushing  waters. 
In  six  hours'  actual  running  time  we  reached  the 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  119 

Station,  beating  all  records  for  boats  of  all  kinds 
on  the  same  run.  The  prospectors  coming  over 
the  route  regard  it  as  good  luck  if  they  can  pull 
or  pole  or  push  their  boats  up  this  stream  in  six 
days.  Here  with  the  kind  permission  of  Mr. 
Churchill  we  again  camped  for  the  night  in  his 
log  cabin. 

In  our  excitement  after  hulligans  we  jumped  a 
log,  bent  a  blade  of  the  propeller,  and  twisted  the 
rudder.  Browne  volunteered  to  fix  the  rudder,  but 
the  task  proved  disheartening.  To  take  it  out  he 
found  it  necessary  to  get  into  the  icy  waters  to  his 
waist,  and  to  replace  it  he  was  compelled  to  get 
under  the  boat.  With  a  spirit  not  discouraged 
by  glacial  waters,  the  thing  was  fixed,  at  no 
expense,  with  two  baths  thrown  in. 

We  blew  our  horn  early  on  the  morning  of  June 
4th,  to  assemble  for  a  start  at  nine  o'clock.  The 
Indians,  the  prospectors,  and  hangers-on  at  the 
Station  came  out  to  see  the  boat  take  the  stream. 
About  three  hundred  yards  above  the  Station 
the  river  narrows  and  turns,  shooting  the  waters 
past  a  huge  bluff  with  a  dangerous  swiftness. 
No  boat  heretofore  had  been  able  to  stem  this 
current.  In  one  way  or  another  they  have  been 
compelled  to  seek  a  roundabout  way,  but  our 
reputation  had  gone  before  us  and  would  we  try 
it?  We  had  so  far  been  able  to  negotiate  all 
rapids  and  this  did  not  seem  much  worse  than 
others  which  we  had  made,  so  we  said  "Yes,  we 
will  try." 


I20  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Over-confident  of  our  success  we  put  on  the 
switch  and  were  off,  but  somehow  we  did  not  rush 
into  the  current  in  the  usual  way,  but  we  went  on. 
As  we  neared  the  bluff  Browne  boldly  headed 
for  the  swiftest  water,  it  shot  over  the  bow  and 
down  stream  we  went.  Pushing  into  the  eddy 
at  the  Station  ashamed  of  our  performance  we 
threw  over  a  line  and  the  people  ashore  were  good 
enough  not  to  make  amusing  capital  out  of  our 
failure.  We  examined  the  engine  carefully  to 
discover  the  reason  for  the  lack  of  power  and  soon 
found  that  the  clutch  was  slipping,  and  that  the 
propeller  was  fouled  by  small  sticks  in  the  tunnel. 
The  propeller  was  reversed  a  few  times,  the  sticks 
drifted  away,  then  everything  was  carefully  ad- 
justed for  our  second  effort,  the  explosions  came 
full  and  free,  the  boat  quivered  with  its  usual  life, 
and  this  time  all  of  the  town  moved  up  to  the 
higher  banks  to  see  our  battle  with  the  rushing 
waters.  Browne  kept  the  split  between  the  eddy 
and  the  current  until  about  two  hundred  feet  from 
the  bluff  and  then  heading  out  slowly,  the  rushing 
waters  flushed  the  decks  and  threw  the  boat  far 
out  into  the  gurgling  stream,  but  the  launch  kept 
going  up  stream — our  reputation  was  now  redeemed 
and  we  were  permitted  the  favourable  prognostica- 
tion of  the  sourdoughs. 

The  Yentna  pours  its  silt-laden  waters  into  the 
Susitna  about  two  miles  above  the  Station.  It 
drains  the  great  area  from  Mt.  Spur  to  Mt.  For- 
aker  and  it  is  the  last  of  the  great  river  beds 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  121 

to  attract  attention  as  a  placer  gold-field.  The 
launch  pushed  up  this  stream  with  greater  ease 
than  up  the  Susitna.  The  rapids  were  less  treach- 
erous, and  the  waters  are  mostly  crowded  into  one 
main  channel.  During  most  of  the  day  we  pressed 
along  low  banks  thickly  covered  with  alders,  wil- 
lows, and  cottonwoods,  but  in  the  afternoon  the 
banks  rose,  spruce  trees  were  more  in  evidence, 
and  here  we  saw  the  sticks  of  old  Indian  camps, 
also  many  signs  of  miners'  camps. 

At  about  four  o'clock  the  low  clouds  which  hung 
over  us  for  several  days  lifted,  and,  looking  back- 
ward, Porter  located  Mt.  Susitna.  We  had  gone 
about  twenty-five  miles  against  a  six-mile  current. 
The  trip  had  been  delightful  and  not  at  all 
fatiguing,  but  a  bluff  coming  in  sight,  and  the  to- 
pographer desiring  some  observations  from  it  of 
Mt.  Susitna,  we  decided  to  land  and  enjoy  our 
first  real  wilderness  camp. 

It  was  one  of  the  most  impressive  spots  on  the 
Yentna.  The  river  was  about  seven  hundred  feet 
wide  and  plunged  into  a  deep  gorge  below,  while 
above  to  the  west  were  steep  banks  crested  by 
spruce  and  birch.  To  the  east  were  islands  covered 
with  cottonwoods,  alders,  and  willows  separated 
by  sluggish  slews  which  formed  a  part  of  the  delta 
of  the  Kahilitna.  The  launch  was  tied  to  a  tree, 
and  the  camp  equipment  was  quickly  passed  out. 
Parker  discovered  that  some  one  had  preceded 
us  and  had  cut  wood.  Browne  and  Miller  soon 
had  a  cheerful  camp-fire  under  a  big  birch  tree. 


122  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

flour  was  mixed  in  the  prospectors'  pan,  and  out 
of  the  reflector  in  a  few  minutes  we  took  twenty 
brown  biscuits;  this  with  bacon,  potatoes,  and 
tea  completed  our  bill  of  fare. 

In  our  rambles  about  camp  we  discovered  a  log 
cabin  on  the  bluff  and  a  good  trail  to  it.  There 
were  differences  of  opinion  as  to  a  choice  of  sleep- 
ing places,  some  preferred  the  boat,  others  the  log 
cabin,  and  still  others  a  small  tent  under  a  spruce 
tree.  The  mosquitoes  were  just  beginning  to  be 
active,  and  we  anticipated  a  mild  first  assault, 
but  they  quickly  surrounded  us  in  countless 
millions,  driving  us  to  despair  with  a  song  and  a 
sting  that  made  the  camp  ring  with  sulphurous 
words.  Here  were  all  the  varieties  of  insect  life 
suddenly  released  from  their  dormant  state,  most 
of  them  seeking  the  first  blood,  and  under  our  thin 
skins  they  found  what  was  to  their  liking.  We 
tried  mosquito  dope,  gasoline,  coal  oil,  creosote,  and 
other  things  but  all  to  no  avail.  From  this  time 
until  we  were  well  up  in  the  snow  line  these  little 
pests  were  to  us  deadly  enemies  and  they  were 
never  idle. 

The  sun  sank  under  the  cones  of  the  spruce  and 
left  a  glitter  of  gold  on  the  glossy  brown  waters. 
Mt.  Susitna  was  clear  cut  against  a  purple  sky. 
The  rushing  waters,  the  crackling  fire,  and  the 
forest  noises  were  keyed  to  a  harmonious  pitch, 
but  the  'skeets  coming  in  black  swarms  out  of  the 
grass  kept  us  in  a  perpetual  torment.  There  was 
a  bright  twilight  through  the  night,  so  bright  that 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  123 

we  could  read  ordinary  print  in  our  silk  tents  at 
midnight.  Early  in  the  morning  a  very  heavy 
shower  of  rain  stilled  the  mosquitoes  but  made 
all  the  camp  thoroughly  uncomfortable. 

On  the  morning  of  June  6th  the  dark  rain-clouds 
separated,  and  for  a  brief  period  there  were  spots 
of  sunlight  floating  down  the  river.  Shivering 
around  the  camp-fire  we  took  up  the  momentous 
question  of  christening  the  boat.  The  discussion 
was  rather  heated  in  its  first  stages  and  the  names 
advocated  were  Bolshoy,  the  Russian  and  Indian 
name  of  the  McKinley  group  of  mountains ;  Tyone, 
Indian  for  Chieftain;  Tyonet,  Indian  for  the  king 
Salmon;  also  Yenlo,  Yentna;  Mountaineer,  Yel- 
low Peril,  and  Come-and-Get-It.  After  due  dis- 
cussion the  vote  was  unanimous  for  Bolshoy. 

At  7  o'clock  we  slipped  the  rope  and  pushed  up 
stream.  Browne  and  Miller  took  turns  at  the 
wheel  while  Parker  did  the  soundings.  Porter 
arranged  the  kitchen  box  on  the  stern  and  from 
there,  undisturbed  by  the  excitement  of  navigation, 
he  took  his  angles  with  the  prismatic  compass  thus 
plotting  the  river  and  its  banks  as  we  went  along. 
But  above  all,  what  interested  us  forward  was 
the  calm  pleasure  which  was  pictured  on  Porter's 
face  as  the  launch  with  sharp  bounds  rushed 
over  swift  waters  and  brought  to  his  gaze  a 
changing  and  highly  coloured  landscape.  To 
myself  fell  the  peculiar  task  of  posing  as  captain 
and  acting  as  engineer.  To  be  captain  was  easy, 
for  my  crew  were  good  river  men,  but  my  duties  as 


124  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

engineer  necessitated  a  careful  watch  upon  the 
many  phases  of  gas-engine  operation.  By  making 
slight  adjustments,  however,  the  engines  puffed 
away  hour  after  hour  with  the  ease  and  regularity 
of  clock  movements.  Each  hour  we  were  climbing 
up  stream  a  distance  which  it  would  take  a  river 
dory  several  days  to  accomplish. 

The  scenic  effect  improved  as  we  rose.  During 
the  second  day  from  the  Station  Mts.  Yenlo 
and  Kliskon  rose  into  view.  Over  the  lower  sky 
line  of  the  spruce  and  birch  trees,  we  now  noted 
the  foothills  of  the  Alaska  Range,  but  the  great 
central  uplift  was  still  veiled  by  dark  clouds.  On 
this  day  also  we  passed  nearly  all  of  the  large 
tributaries  of  the  Yentna.  One,  the  Kahilitna, 
a  glacial  river  taking  the  drainage  of  a  huge 
glacier  from  Mt.  Foraker,  runs  through  the  centre 
of  the  new  gold  country  south  of  Mt.  McKinley. 
Eight  miles  above  the  Kahilitna  we  passed  Lake 
Creek,  arising  from  a  large  lake  south  of  Mt.  Rus- 
sell. Twelve  miles  above  this  we  passed  the 
mouth  of  the  Skwentna  coming  from  the  glaciers 
amid  the  unknown  mountains  north  of  Mt.  Spur, 
and  early  on  the  morning  of  June  7th  we  passed 
the  mouth  of  the  Kichatna  which  drains  the 
Simpson  Pass  district.  After  ascending  beyond 
these  four  tributaries  the  Yentna  was  still  as  large 
as  the  Hudson  above  tide  water,  and  its  waters 
poured  over  gravel  bars  at  the  rate  of  nearly  seven 
miles  per  hour. 

We  followed  the  Yentna  in  its  great  sweeps  and 


FORDING  THE  YENTNA 


READY  FOR  A  PLUNGE 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  125 

ciirves  over  a  wide  expanse  of  silt.  This  silt  was 
washed  out  of  the  high  mountains  of  the  north 
in  former  ages,  and  to-day  the  same  silt,  though 
covered  by  forests,  is  being  cut  away  and  deposited 
into  other  places  lower  down.  The  quantity  of 
this  glacial  wash  held  in  suspension  is  inconceiva- 
ble. In  places  where  the  current  is  rapid  the 
consistency  of  the  water  approaches  that  of  syrup. 
This  peculiar  faculty  of  the  Yentna  in  tearing  down 
and  building  up  explains  the  very  frequent  changes 
in  the  channel  of  the  stream.  It  explains  also 
the  origin  of  the  many  islands  and  slews  so 
characteristic  of  the  Alaskan  glacial  rivers. 

Youngs  town,  a  kind  of  mythical  miners'  camp, 
the  supposed  head  of  navigation,  was  our  ultimate 
destination.  But  we  were  a  long  time  locating 
the  town.  Indeed  the  town  was  unable  to  locate 
itself,  for  it  drifted  with  a  shifting  population  of 
miners.  At  about  ten  o'clock  we  saw  a  big  dory 
drifting  down  the  stream.  A  corpulent  miner 
with  all  kinds  of  things  was  in  the  boat.  To  our 
question,  "  How  far  to  Youngstown? "  he  answered: 
"  It  used  to  be  twenty  miles  above,  but  it  just 
moved.  I  have  the  town  in  the  dory  and  am 
taking  it  down  the  stream."  He  also  said  the 
river  was  not  navigable  above,  but  our  soundings 
gave  from  three  to  four  feet  of  water,  and  so  long 
as  we  could  find  thirty  inches,  our  boat  could 
kick  along. 

By  going  aground  often,  jumping  snags  and 
dodging  sweepers,  we  managed  to  get  to  a  point 


126  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

on  the  west  fork  about  forty  miles  from  the  head 
waters.  Here  we  secured  the  Bolshoy  to  a  cut 
bank,  built  a  cache,  placing  in  it  most  of  our 
provisions,  and  on  the  bars  we  erected  a  big  tent. 

The  tent  and  its  surroundings  we  named 
"Parker  House  "  in  honour  of  our  co-worker  Prof. 
Parker.  The  river  above  Parker  House  spread 
over  a  wide  expanse  of  quicksand.  This  shallow 
rift  extended  about  three  miles,  and  beyond  the 
river  narrowed  and  would  have  been  navigable 
for  several  miles  had  we  been  able  to  get  our  boat 
above  the  shallow. 

A  huge  camp-fire  was  built  for  comfort,  and 
another  fire  for  cooking.  We  gathered  around 
the  fires  and  talked  about  our  luck  in  climbing  the 
rushing  waters,  our  picturesque  surroundings, 
the  signs  of  game,  and  the  next  effort  to  find  a 
pass  through  the  range.  The  work  of  the  day  had 
been  exciting.  We  were  tired,  cold,  and  hungry. 
Nearly  everybody  helped  the  cook  to  prepare  a 
great  feast.  The  menu  in  preparation  was  as 
follows:  Biscuits  baked  in  the  reflector,  with  a 
Yentna  gold  and  brown  finish,  pork  and  beans, 
fried  bacon,  fried  eggs,  mashed  potatoes,  tea.  As 
this  was  about  ready  Browne  introduced  the  call 
"Come  and  get  it."  This  was  continued  as  a  meal 
call  during  all  of  our  adventures. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Discoveries  About  Mt.  Dall  and  the  Yentna 
Headwaters. 

WE  HAD  hardly  finished  the  meal  when  we 
noted  a  rather  strong  icy  wind  blowing 
from  the  north,  and  with  it  the  clouds  drifting 
up  the  valley  vanished.  These  vapours  in  our 
trip  up  the  Yentna  obscured  the  big  mountains  of 
the  Alaska  Range.  Soon  after  the  high  clouds 
also  withdrew,  leaving  a  central  zone  of  stratus 
films.  Above  this  line  of  clouds  we  were  suddenly 
surprised  by  the  mirage  of  peak  after  peak  of  giant 
proportions,  all  seemingly  near  and  looming  up 
so  very  high  that  any  one  of  them  could  have 
been  mistaken  for  Mt.  McKinley.  Below,  were 
the  steep  green  slopes  of  the  foothills,  separated 
by  large  rounded  valleys,  in  several  of  which 
could  be  seen  the  blue  surfaces  of  great  ice  streams, 
from  which  came  the  brown  waters  of  the  Yentna. 
There  were  four  notable  peaks  after  the  mirage 
had  disappeared.  These  were  Mts.  McKinley 
Foraker,  Russell,  and  Dall.  All  were  freshly 
covered  with  snow,  but  Mt.  Russell  seemed  most 
remarkable  because  of  its  nearness  and  regular 

pyramidal  shape.     To  the  westward  of  Mt.  Dall 

127 


128  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

we  were  now  able  to  pick  out  several  distinct 
breaks  in  the  range,  and  to  explore  these  to  dis- 
cover a  pass  to  the  westward  w^as  our  next  effort. 
On  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  June  9th,  we 
determined  to  start  for  the  Pass.  We  estimated 
that  we  were  forty  miles  from  the  divide,  and 
we  planned  to  cover  as  much  of  this  as  possible 
by  poling  or  lining  a  twenty-foot  canvas  boat. 
Stocking  our  boat  with  a  supply  for  five  men  for 
ten  days  we  left  Parker  House  in  charge  of  Prof. 
Parker  and  began  the  arduous  and  dangerous  task 
of  pushing  up  the  tumbling  waters  of  the  Yentna. 
Prof.  Parker  was  to  make  a  round  of  observations 
and  direct  the  building  and  stocking  of  a  large 
main  cache.  Mr.  Porter  had  already  measured 
the  base  line,  and  had  also  secured  meridian  and 
latitude  observations.  The  topographer  was  thus 
in  a  favourable  position  to  begin  a  plane-table 
survey  of  the  unexplored  territory  through  which 
we  were  about  to  travel.  My  companions  in 
this  scouting  party  were  Porter,  Brow^ne,  Miller, 
and  Armstrong,  the  latter  having  joined  us  on  the 
river  to  prospect  the  new  territory  through 
which  we  aimed  to  go.  The  boat  w^as  not  heavily 
loaded  but  it  gave  us  much  trouble  in  towing,  and 
we  soon  discovered  that  for  glacial  rapids  a  canvas 
canoe  was  a  failure.  With  four  men  on  the  line 
and  one  in  the  stem  with  a  steering  paddle  we  just 
managed  to  get  along  about  a  mile  an  hour.  Our 
troubles  were  numerous,  being  frequently  mired  in 
quick-sand,  sttimblino:  over  treacherous  drift  wood 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  129 

into  deep  icy  waters,  fording  rapids,  and  fighting 
the  mosquitoes,  were  but  a  few  of  our  hardships. 
The  thing  was  however  exciting,  and  was  taken 
with  good  cheer. 

As  the  sun  settled  under  the  snow  peaks  of  the 
west  we  witnessed  the  first  of  the  remarkable 
series  of  sunsets  which  gladdened  our  hearts 
for  weeks  to  come.  We  were  approaching  the 
time  of  the  longest  day  and  also  nearing  the  arctic 
circle,  the  combined  effect  of  which  was  to  give 
us  a  long  day  of  intense  heat  with  frequent  showers, 
a  short  night,  frosty  and  clear  with  the  sun  just 
under  the  northern  mountains  throwing  flames 
of  orange  and  gold  against  a  sky  of  purple.  We 
camped  that  night  on  a  bar  where  driftwood 
was  plentiful,  and  in  a  near-by  pool  clear  water 
was  found  which  was  a  discovery  indeed,  for  though 
water  was  to  be  found  everywhere,  clear  water, 
free  of  glacial  mud,  was  indeed  rare. 

As  the  chill  and  twilight  of  the  night  settled 
over  us  the  bright  camp-fire  was  doubly  appre- 
ciated. A  bit  of  canvas  was  spread  on  the  sand  in 
the  lee  of  a  log  and  upon  it  in  an  appetising  array 
were  steaming  beans  and  bacon,  bread,  and  tea 
made  of  clear  water  for  all  to  "come  and  get  it." 
Our  clothing  was  soaked  with  ice  water  from  head 
to  foot,  and  until  the  cheer  of  the  fire  and  the 
thought  of  hot  food  were  impressed  upon  us  we  were 
thoroughly  miserable.  That  night  in  the  silk  tents 
we  were  well  housed  from  the  mosquitoes,  and 
in  the  morning  as  we  awoke  among  the  roaring 


I30  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

ice  waters,  the  camp-fire  and  the  warm  breakfast 
proved  a  fetching  inducement  for  early  rising. 

By  noon  of  the  loth  we  reached  the  limit  of 
profitable  canoe  navigation.  The  boat  had  been 
dragged  over  gravel  bars  so  much  that  the  outer 
canvas  was  worn  through  in  several  places,  re- 
quiring immediate  repair.  We  were  now  about 
eight  miles  above  Parker  House,  and  here  the 
river  makes  a  sharp  turn.  Leaving  Miller  and 
Armstrong  here  to  repair  the  boat  and  prospect 
for  gold,  Porter  and  Browne  joined  me  on  a  venture 
to  seek  a  pass.  The  outlook  from  here  was 
favourable.  Winds  and  clouds  were  rushing  into 
gaps  through  the  mountains  at  a  point  about 
thirty  miles  westward.  To  reach  and  examine 
these  gaps  we  packed  into  our  rucksacks  our  equip- 
ment of  sleeping  bags,  tent,  food  for  seven  days, 
and  instruments,  in  all  weighing  thirty  pounds. 
Starting  late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  loth  we  set 
a  course  into  the  narrowing  valley  of  the  west 
fork  of  the  Yentna  travelling  over  gravel  bars  and 
benches,  fording  slews  occasionally,  but  no  big 
streams.  The  frequent  stops  which  Porter  required 
to  set  up  his  plane  table  gave  us  a  welcome  breath- 
ing spell.  The  tracks  of  bears,  moose,  and  wolves 
aroused  us  to  a  spirit  of  the  chase,  while  the  be- 
wildering mountain  slope  with  roaring  falls  and 
cataracts  echoing  from  side  to  side  revealed 
nature  in  its  wildest  aspects. 

After  having  covered  about  seven  miles  we 
spent   the  night   in    our   little   tents  pitched   on 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  131 

a  sand  bar,  and  before  the  sun  had  dispelled  the 
chilly  shadows  of  the  big  mountain  of  the  north- 
east we  were  again  on  the  march  with  our  packs. 
At  noon  we  found  the  sun  so  hot  that  it  was 
thought  best  to  camp  for  a  few  hours  to  rest,  to 
dry  out  our  clothing,  and  to  eat  a  hearty  meal. 
We  had  crossed  and  recrossed  the  main  stream 
with  great  difficulty.  The  icy  waters  were  here 
wide  and  deep,  but  the  shores  were  so  precipitous, 
and  the  underbrush  so  dense  that  we  were  com- 
pelled to  take  the  river  bottom,  fording  and  swim- 
ming as  the  occasion  required. 

At  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  we  again  took 
up  our  burden  and  marched  into  the  opening 
of  a  canyon,  but  the  waters  here  proved  too  deep 
and  too  swift  to  ford.  After  vainly  searching 
for  an  easy  crossing  we  were  finally  forced  to 
camp,  having  made  only  ten  miles  for  the  day's 
effort. 

We  took  to  the  brush  on  the  next  day  to  avoid 
fording  and  swimming.  The  stream  was  very 
dangerous,  the  alders  the  worst  we  had  seen,  and 
though  we  found  an  old  bear  trail  it  took  us  all 
day  to  make  an  advance  of  three  miles. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  1 4th  it  rained  heavily 
in  the  mountains.  The  river  was  high,  but  we 
could  not  afford  the  time  to  wait  for  better  weather. 
Our  first  task  was  to  cross  a  stream,  the  worst 
that  we  had  seen.  We  tried  in  vain  for  a  good 
ford  and  at  last  Browne  in  a  desperate  spirit 
plunged  into  the  raging  torrent,  lost  his  footing, 


i:;2  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


■0 


tui*ned  several  summersaults,  was  carried  down 
stream  some  distance,  and  only  saved  himself 
by  landing  on  a  submerged  boulder.  Porter  and 
I  followed  with  better  luck,  but  it  was  agreed  that 
we  would  cross  no  more  such  streams.  We  tried 
hard  to  be  true  to  our  resolution,  but  other 
streams  barred  our  way  and  must  be  negotiated. 
In  four  hours  we  had  gone  about  eight  miles  and 
were  blocked  from  farther  progress  by  rapids 
increasing  in  force  and  depth.  We  calculated 
that  with  horses  all  these  waters  would  be  easy, 
so  it  simply  remained  for  us  to  explore  the  pass 
far  enough  to  be  reasonably  sure  that  we  could  get 
through  the  range.  To  determine  this  point  finally 
we  now  decided  to  climb  the  mountains  to  the 
south  to  an  altitude  where  we  might  see  through 
the  range.  We  crossed  a  deep  channel  and  be- 
gan the  climb  wet  to  our  hips,  with  boots  full 
of  ice  water.  The  slopes  were  steep,  while  the 
underbrush  was  as  dense  as  tropical  verdure^ 
and  on  hands  and  knees  we  climbed  and  crawled 
between  branches.  The  mosquitoes  were  mad- 
dening, and  the  devil-clubs  filled  our  clothing  with 
needles.  Before  we  had  ascended  two  thousand 
feet  our  trousers  were  torn  in  strips  and  we  were 
thoroughly  exhausted.  A  rest  of  an  hour  while 
observations  were  being  made  and  another  hour  for 
lunch  changed  our  fatigue  into  renewed  enthu- 
siasm; for  at  this  time  we  saw  that  if  we  could 
reach  an  old  glacial  bench  about  a  thousand  feet 
higher,  and  about  four  miles  west,  we  could  get  a 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  133 

view  which  would  satisfy  us  as  to  the  possibiUty 
of  getting  our  pack-horses  through  the  range.  We 
reached  this  position  in  about  two  hours,  and  there 
pitched  the  tent.  Wood  was  scarce  here,  but 
we  found  roots,  bits  of  brush,  and  moss  sufficient 
to  prepare  our  food.  We  had  now  reached  the 
limit  of  time  and  food-consumption  which  we  had 
allowed  ourselves,  so  this  must  be  our  last  day  of 
advance.  It  rained,  snowed,  and  hailed  a  great 
part  of  the  night,  but  the  early  morning  as  usual 
was  bright  and  clear. 

Our  position  here  was  unique.  The  foaming 
waters  of  the  Yentna  were  more  than  two  thousand 
feet  below  us,  rushing  from  bluff  to  bluff  in  a 
system  of  unexplored  canyons  which  for  perpen- 
dicular cliffs  and  superb  mountains  of  great  alti- 
tude surpassed  the  glories  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of 
the  Colorado.  To  the  south  were  huge  snow-capped 
mountains  unnamed  and  unexplored,  among  them 
large  snow  basins  feeding  glaciers  of  the  Yentna 
and  Kuskokwim.  To  the  north  was  a  curious 
mountain  about  six  thousand  feet  high  with  five 
pinnacles.  The  main  Yentna  waters  came  out  of 
canyons  on  both  sides  of  this  mountain.  To  the 
south  above  the  canyon  we  could  see  the  rolling 
hills  of  the  western  slopes  of  the  range.  To  the 
north  of  this  mountain  was  a  wide  low  gap  through 
which  the  clouds  of  the  Kuskokwim  drifted,  amd 
beyond  this  gap  were  high  mountains  leading  up 
to  Mt.  Dall.  The  passes  existing  on  both  sides  of 
the  mountain  with  five  pinnacles  seemed  promising 


134  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

from  every  view  we  had,  but  no  pass  is  a  pass 
until  some  one  has  passed  through  it.  We  could 
have  gone  through  afoot,  but  we  had  neither  the 
time  nor  the  food  supply,  and,  after  all,  our  object 
was  only  to  ascertain  with  reasonable  possibility 
if  the  pass  was  practicable  for  pack-horses.  Of 
this  we  now  felt  sure,  and  laboriously  returned 
to  Parker  House  over-confident  of  our  ability 
to  cross  the  range  by  the  new  pass  with  our  horses. 


CHAPTER  V 
Into  the  Yentna  Canyons 

WE  WERE  now  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the 
pack-train.  Miller  and  Ball  had  been  sent 
to  the  Kichatna  to  meet  the  packers  and  guide 
them  above  the  timber  line,  along  the  bald  slopes, 
and  down  to  our  camp  in  the  Yentna.  The 
days  of  waiting  were  spent  by  cutting  trail  from 
the  river  to  the  grassy  upper  slopes.  Porter  and 
Browne  camped  high  up  in  the  mountains  to  study 
topography  and  game,  and  had  several  exciting 
experiences.  Porter  took  his  instruments  to  the 
top  of  a  commanding  peak  and  set  up  his  plane 
table  to  sketch  a  round  of  contours.  While  his 
attention  was  fixed  on  distant  peaks,  he  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  approach  of  a  big  brown  bear  with 
a  cub.  There  was  not  room  for  Porter  and  the 
bear  on  the  peak,  and  Porter  had  no  weapon 
with  which  to  enforce  his  prior  claim,  so  he  quickly 
grabbed  his  instruments  and  with  long  strides 
he  descended  over  the  sudden  drop  of  snow-bank. 
The  coming  of  a  violent  storm  made  farther 
retreat  necessary  for  both  Browne  and  Porter, 
and  the  map  was  never  completed. 

In  the  course  of  a  week  after  our  return  to  the 

135 


136  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Parker  House  we  heard  one  day  the  sound  of  the 
bell-mare's  bell  and  the  axes  cutting  trail  through 
a  dense  spruce  and  birch  forest,  and  soon  after  saw 
Printz,  the  chief  packer,  tumble  into  a  stream 
from  a  low  bank.  The  water  was  deeper  than  he 
had  calculated,  so  he  had  quite  a  tussle  to  dodge 
the  horses  that  plunged  in  after  him.  Men  and 
horses  scrambled  out  on  a  sandy  bar,  and  with 
them  came  clouds  of  mosquitoes.  Here  these 
pests  greeted  us  and  we  greeted  our  companions 
from  whom  we  had  been  separated  for  three  weeks, 
and  the  reunion  was  an  occasion  for  a  special 
feed  and  rest. 

Printz  with  Barrille  and  Beecher  had  had  a  hard 
time  in  the  cross-country  tramp  to  reach  us  at 
the  Parker  House,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and 
thirty  miles,  over  marshes,  through  thick  under- 
brush, and  across  several  big  glacial  rivers.  The 
horses  were  reduced  in  numbers,  and  those  that 
survived  were  weak,  thin,  and  sickly,  due  mostly 
to  the  incessant  torment  of  mosquitoes  and  horse- 
flies. The  six  horses  stampeded  by  the  Indians' 
dogs  were  not  recovered,  and  to  make  matters 
worse,  while  feeding  near  the  Beluga  River  the 
herd  wandered  over  a  grassy  plain  under  which 
a  stratum  of  lignite  coal  was  burning.  Some  of 
the  horses  broke  through  the  surface  and  were 
mired  in  the  fiery  coal.  Six  were  badly  burned,  of 
which  three  were  shot,  but  the  others  after  care- 
ful nursing  recovered.  Now  there  remained  but 
eleven  horses  of  a  splendid  pack-train  of  twenty 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  137 

animals,  and  some  of  these  were  not  strong 
enough  to  carry  packs. 

On  the  25th  of  June  we  packed  the  horses  with 
suppHes  which  we  hoped  to  place  in  caches  along 
the  western  side  of  the  range  for  later  use  by  our 
hunting  party.  We  also  packed  an  outfit  and 
supplies  for  an  assault  upon  Mt.  McKinley  from 
the  slopes  north  of  Mt.  Foraker.  The  weather  had 
been  very  warm  for  several  days,  melting  the 
winter  snows  in  the  high  mountains  rapidly,  and 
there  was  also  a  great  deal  of  rain  during  the  night. 
The  river  in  consequence  was  rather  high  and 
we  could  not  afford  the  time  to  wait  for  low 
water,  nor  could  we  guess  when  the  water  would 
become  low.  We  started  to  follow  the  Yentna  into 
the  pass  as  we  had  previously  gone  afoot.  We 
had  not  gone  far  before  we  noticed  that  the  Yentna 
offered  perils  even  with  horses.  The  pack-train 
of  eleven  horses,  carrying  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  each,  with  eight  men  scattered 
among  them,  was  in  good  control.  The  men  and 
horses  rushing  over  seething  rapids  into  a  land 
unknown  made  a  picture  of  pioneer  life  as  prim- 
itive as  that  of  the  early  Western  frontiersmen. 

While  the  horses  were  thoroughly  trained  to 
carrying  pack  they  had  not  yet  adapted  them- 
selves to  the  new  trick  of  fording  rivers  with  the 
double  load  of  pack  and  man.  In  following  the 
Yentna  it  was  necessary  to  ford  so  often  that 
we  could  not  stop  and  unpack,  nor  did  we  aim 
to  trouble  the  animals  except  in  crossing  dangerous 


i:;8  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


'O 


places.  As  we  nearei  a  deep  slew  each  man  took 
his  favourite  horse  and  led  him  into  the  ford,  mount- 
ing on  the  run.  This  kind  of  adventure  proved 
very  exciting.  Most  of  the  horses  bucked  with 
the  first  attempt  and  plunged  into  deep  swift 
water  with  a  wild  splash.  If  the  swim  was  short 
and  the  rider  had  good  presence  of  mind  the 
task  proved  merely  exhilarating,  but  if  the  swim 
was  long,  and  either  man  or  horse  became  panic- 
stricken,  then  there  was  trouble  for  all. 

This  panic  in  the  depth  of  swift  water,  which  is 
the  same  as  that  in  the  breath  of  avalanches  at 
high  altitudes,  is  a  dangerous  state  of  mind,  for  it 
defeats  the  ability  for  quick  action  upon  which 
the  security  of  life  often  depends.  Some  men 
soon  school  themselves  to  its  elimination,  but 
with  others  the  thing  becomes  more  overwhelming 
with  every  experience.  Rushing  glacial  streams 
have  a  peculiar  effect  upon  every  one  is  who  much 
around  them.  There  is  a  run  of  human  passion 
which  goes  with  tumbling  waters.  Most  of  our 
party  felt  the  spirit  of  this  peril  of  the  rapids, 
for  as  we  breathed  the  icy  spray  of  the  swift 
streams  some  became  stimulated  and  talkative 
and  others  quiet  and  melancholy.  Thus  each 
swim  of  the  Yentna  left  its  imprint  of  intoxication. 

In  the  first  three  miles  the  fords  were  only 
waist-deep  and  few^  men  took  the  trouble  to  mount, 
but  as  the  river  turned  westerly  the  many  slews 
united,  making  one  large  river  about  three  hundred 
yards    wide.      Picking  what  we  supposed  would 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  139 

be  the  best  ford,  Printz,  Browne,  and  Porter 
started.  They  got  along  splendidly  until  the 
horses  began  to  swira  and  were  carried  down 
stream,  landing  on  the  opposite  shore  along  a  cut 
bank  among  roots  and  fallen  trees.  The  men 
climbed  out,  and  after  a  good  deal  of  trouble 
succeeded  in  dragging  their  horses  out  also.  Most 
of  the  other  horses  were  bucking  and  could  only 
be  urged  into  the  water  with  great  difficulty.  To 
allow  for  the  drift  down  stream  the  rest  of  us 
started  into  the  water  farther  up,  with  results 
even  more  disastrous  than  the  first. 

At  the  next  ford  we  were  more  careful.  A 
trail  was  cut  for  a  mile  through  dense  alders  and 
willows,  which  served  the  double  purpose  of  ob- 
viating a  swim  and  warming  the  men  after  their 
shivering  water  adventures.  Coming  out  of  the 
jungle  we  found  a  camping  spot  on  a  bar  where 
driftwood  and  clear  water  were  abundant,  but 
the  grass  was  insufficient.  From  the  driftwood 
a  big  fire  was  made.  Soon  we  forgot  the  dis- 
comfort of  the  cold  water  and  warmed  to  home 
topics. 

During  the  next  day  we  were  able  to  avoid  dan- 
gerous fords,  and,  with  an  agreeable  camp  under 
magnificent  cascades,  the  peril  of  the  rapids  was 
for  a  time  dispelled  by  the  more  distant  music. 
The  next  day,  however,  troubles  returned  with 
double  force,  for  as  we  pushed  into  the  moun- 
tains the  river  took  a  zigzag  course  from  bluff 
to  bluff  and  ruffled  up  in  mid -stream  tumbles. 


I40  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


The  worst  experience  of  this  day  and  the  most  | 
dangerous  of  the  entire  trip  unfortunately  fell  j 
to  the  lot  of  the  man  who  feared  the  run  of  glacial  j 
waters  most.  As  the  river  made  a  sharp  turn  from 
cliff  to  cliff  we  were  forced  to  cross  two  narrow 
slews  where  the  water  moved  with  a  rush  that 
made  us  hold  our  breaths.  In  the  first  crossing 
nearly  every  one  had  got  into  trouble  and  scrambled  . 
out  of  the  bubbling  rapids  with  the  feeling  that 
he  had  just  escaped  an  icy  grave.  The  next  slew 
was  more  encouraging.  Here  it  was  wider  and  gave 
us  more  room  to  clear  the  cliffs  if  by  chance  we 
were  taken  down  stream.  Four  men  crossed  with 
some  difficulty,  but  by  just  missing  a  swim.  Prof. 
Parker  mounted  Billy  Buck,  the  horse  that  had 
gained  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  river 
animal.  Billy  Buck  started  in  somewhat  lower 
than  the  other  horses,  became  confused  in  mid- 
stream, lost  his  footing,  went  down  stream  and 
under.  For  a  few  seconds  both  the  Professor 
and  the  horse  were  out  of  sight.  Suddenly  the 
Professor  bobbed  up,  struck  for  the  shore,  and  was 
pulled  out  by  Barrille  at  a  time  when  he  had  about 
given  up  the  game.  The  head  of  the  horse  was 
seen  as  the  seething  waters  swept  the  cliffs,  but 
we  followed  the  stream  with  anxious  eyes  for  some 
distance  without  seeing  the  unfortunate  animal 
again.  We  were  certain  the  horse  was  lost  but 
thought  his  pack  must  drift  ashore  somewhere. 
In  the  pack  were  a  number  of  things  indispensable 
to  our  work,   but   the   thing   desired   most   was 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  141 

Browne's  rifle,  which  was  lashed  insecurely  over  it. 
Two  scouting  parties  were  sent  down  stream  to 
seek  the  pack,  and  a  few  miles  below  they  found 
Billy  Buck  feeding  along  in  tall  grass,  with  his 
pack  still  properly  balanced  and  the  rifle  somewhat 
scratched  and  dented  but  still  in  working  order. 

The  unexpected  rescue  of  Billy  Buck  made  our 
camp  ring  with  enthusiasm,  but  the  day's  ex- 
perience, with  the  narrow  escape  of  Parker,  proved 
that  greater  caution  was  necessary  in  the  future 
fords.  Our  camp  here  was  near  a  clear  stream, 
where  Porter  secured  some  trout.  The  foothills 
rose  in  successive  slants  almost  perpendicularly. 
Near  the  stream  bed  were  a  few  spruce,  birch,  and 
Cottonwood  trees,  and  some  scattered  patches  of 
grass.  The  middle  slopes  were  covered  with  alders 
and  the  upper  benches  were  remarkable  for  new 
green  carpets  of  grass,  while  just  above,  at  six 
thousand  feet,  was  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 

When  the  sun  broke  through  the  haze  and 
vapour  it  was  suffocatingly  hot,  but  the  almost 
continuous  train  of  clouds  which  ran  through  the 
range  in  the  direction  of  our  prospective  pass 
kept  up  a  gloom  of  local  showers.  The  nights  were 
bright  but  chilly,  and  the  winds  were  unusually 
strong.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  were 
keenly  felt  and  the  difflculties  of  advance  were 
such  that  an  air  of  uncertainty  and  mystery  was 
necessarily  cast  over  every  plan  of  action. 

The  mouth  of  the  canyon  of  the  Yentna  was  but 
eight  miles  away  and  the  next  day's  camp  was  to 


142  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

be  pitched  in  a  bunch  of  big  cottonwoods  within 
easy  striking  distance  of  the  opening.  With 
good  weather  and  good  luck  we  reached  this 
camp  soon  after  noon. 

It  was  evident  that  much  scouting  must  be  done 
before  a  pass  could  be  forced  here  with  heavy 
packs.  A  cache  was  built,  a  permanent  camp 
was  made,  and  good  feeding  grounds  were  sought 
for  the  horses. 

The  morning  of  June  29th  opened  with  spats 
of  sunlight,  which  drifted  hurriedly  along  the 
valley.  The  temperature  was  43°  and  a  strong 
wind  came  out  of  the  canyon  in  hard  puffs.  The 
problem  of  the  day  was  to  determine  finally  the 
possibility  of  getting  through  the  range.  We 
entertained  strong  hopes  of  doing  so,  but  the 
canyons  were  still  unexplored,  and  with  our  un- 
fortunate water  experience  we  prepared  cautiously 
for  the  desperate  task.  Browne,  Barrille,  and 
Printz  were  invited  to  join  me  in  the  endeavour. 
The  four  best  river  horses  were  selected,  and 
without  packs  and  without  saddles  we  started 
for  the  plunges. 

Our  camp  fellows  gathered  at  the  gates  of  the 
canyon  and  watched  the  horses  take  the  first 
series  of  rapids.  The  water  was  deep  and  swift, 
but  the  swim  was  very  short.  As  we  pushed 
into  the  narrowing  gap  of  the  cut  the  streams 
came  together  with  augmented  force.  To  gain 
footing  on  the  bars  it  was  necessary  to  cross  at 
every  turn.     We  had  expected  to  swim  much  and 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  143 

therefore  wore  as  little  as  possible.  A  bathing 
suit  would  have  been  to  our  liking,  but  the  icy 
water  and  the  frost  of  the  shadows  in  the  canyons, 
with  a  biting  wind,  made  our  wet  clothing  almost 
harden  to  armour  plates.  After  each  swim  we 
dismounted,  shivered,  danced  about,  and  hurried 
along  to  the  luck  of  the  next  crossing. 

About  two  miles  up  stream  the  main  canyon 
turned  to  the  north  of  a  remarkable  peak  with 
five  points.  Here  the  river  forked,  the  northerly 
stream  heading  towards  the  Tonzona  River  while 
the  southerly  stream,  with  a  lesser  canyon,  led 
towards  the  Dillinger  River.  Both  courses  must 
be  explored  for  a  pass.  Browne  and  Barrille 
were  sent  to  examine  the  Yentna-Dillinger  gap, 
while  Printz  and  the  writer  sought  to  push  into 
the  Yentna-Tonzona  canyon. 

Toward  the  Tonzona  the  walls  of  the  can3^on 
rose  in  successive  tiers  to  seven  thousand  feet. 
For  sheer  cliffs  and  dazzling  contrast  of  colour  the 
scene  surpassed  that  of  the  Grand  Canyon.  The 
gap  narrowed  as  we  advanced,  the  stream  deepened 
until  at  last  three  miles  above  the  forks  we  were 
halted  by  the  plunging  torrent  with  no  place  for 
a  footing  for  man  or  beast.  We  found  some 
tracks  of  moose,  bear,  and  mountain  sheep,  but  the 
footing  was  too  insecure  for  our  horses.  With  no 
safe  practical  way  to  get  through  this  canyon  we 
returned  to  the  forks  and  followed  Browne  and 
Barrille  into  the  other  canyon,  westward  to  the 
limit    of    horse    travel.     This    canyon    was    less 


144  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

picturesque,  but  it  offered  better  facilities  for 
travel.  To  each  side  of  the  canyon  there  was  a 
bench,  the  shelf  of  an  old  glacier,  beyond  which 
we  saw  a  rolling  grassy  country  at  an  altitude 
of  about  three  thousand  feet.  It  was,  however, 
impossible  to  rise  out  of  the  canyon  with  our 
horses  to  this  bench,  and  therefore  this  pass  would 
also  be  impracticable  for  the  pack-train,  though 
men  with  light  packs  could  get  through.  Unless 
we  could  push  along  supplies  sufficient  for  several 
months  it  was  useless  to  continue  the  search 
for  a  break  through  the  range,  and  therefore  we 
abandoned  the  pass-seeking  undertaking. 

The  return  proved  to  be  a  very  dangerous  ad- 
venture. The  sun  had  thrown  its  fire  on  the  glacier 
all  day,  and  the  river  swelled  with  leaps  and  bounds. 
We  had  no  great  difficulty  until  after  we  passed 
the  forks ;  then  the  horses  refused  to  take  t  o  the 
water.  Printz  made  seven  or  eight  attempts 
with  his  Billy  Buck,  and  each  time  the  horse 
turned  to  the  near  bank.  In  one  of  these  attempts 
my  Roan  followed,  struck  out  with  a  desperate 
lunge,  and  crossed.  This  left  a  wide  torrent  be- 
tween us,  and  the  noise  of  the  rushing  water  was 
such  that  we  could  not  hear  each  other.  After 
several  more  attempts  Printz  took  his  horse  to  a 
break  in  the  canyon  and  signalled  that  he  would 
try  to  return  along  the  brim. 

There  were  still  five  dangerous  crossings  to 
be  made  before  leaving  the  canyon,  and  to  do  this 
alone  was  taking  a  desperate  chance,  but  there 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  145 

was  no  alternative.  The  next  crossing  was  ac- 
complished without  much  trouble,  though  Roan 
refused  for  a  long  time  to  make  the  attempt, 
but  the  next  swim  induced  me  to  quit  water 
ventures  for  that  day.  In  urging  the  horse  into 
the  water  he  suddenly  lost  footing  and  struck 
out,  but  the  current  was  such  that  he  turned  over 
so  quickly  that  he  hardly  knew  what  happened, 
and  I  had  no  time  to  argue  either  with  Roan  or 
myself  when  I  found  myself  groping  at  the  horse's 
stomach  with  his  legs  dashing  out  with  wild 
darts.  I  let  go;  whether  I  prudently  decided  to 
quit  the  horse  or  unconsciously  let  go  I  do  not 
know,  but  the  next  moment  we  were  side  by  side, 
snorting  and  puffing  and  reaching  out  for  the 
shore. 

Roan  was  carried  down  only  about  one  hundred 
feet,  and  then  reached  out  over  big  boulders  to 
a  sand  bar,  where  he  stood  and  watched  me  drift 
with  the  rushing  waters  toward  a  cliff.  It  seemed 
as  if  I  could  never  reach  that  shore,  and  as  I  was 
about  to  seek  the  bottom  the  stream  brushed 
the  rocks  with  such  force  that  it  was  impossible 
to  hold  the  feet  down.  Feeling  that  the  grip  of 
death  was  at  hand  a  last  effort  was  made,  which 
landed  me  on  the  boulders  as  the  current  turned 
to  press  into  a  tunnel.  For  some  minutes  I  re- 
mained face  down  on  those  boulders,  so  nearly 
paralyzed  from  cold  and  exhaustion  that  I  was 
unable  to  stir.  With  increased  consciousness 
there  was  also  an  added  sense  of  cold,  and  as  I 


146  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

walked  over  to  the  horse  I  noticed  that  he  too 
was  shivering.  It  was  but  a  mile  to  the  end  of 
the  canyon,  but  I  had  not  the  courage  to  test 
the  more  dangerous  crossings  below. 

Finding  some  good  grass  in  a  gully  I  left  Roan, 
intending  to  reach  camp  over  the  brim  and  ex- 
pecting to  come  after  him  in  the  morning,  when 
the  river  would  be  lower.  The  ascent  out  of  the 
canyon  was  a  very  difficult  one,  but  I  had  not  gone 
far  before  the  horse  pushed  his  nose  under  my  arm 
and  proved  that  he  could  climb  as  w^ell  as  a  man. 
Together  we  made  a  zigzag  course  to  the  top,  but 
there  our  trouble  was  even  worse.  The  brush  was 
so  thick  that  it  was  difficult  to  push  through,  and  I 
had  nothing  but  a  pocket  knife  with  which  to  cut  a 
trail.  Crowding  between  alders  the  horse  followed, 
seeming  to  share  with  me  the  eagerness  to  get  away 
from  the  rapids.  Finally  we  reached  camp,  where 
we  found  Printz  against  a  blazing  camp-fire  thawing 
out.  Browne  came  along  about  an  hour  later 
having  shot  a  brown  bear,  and  having  had  the 
same  experience  which  fell  to  our  lot,  but  Barrille 
with  his  horse  was  left  in  the  canyon. 

An  expedition  was  organised  for  the  relief  of 
Barrille  with  other  horses  and  ropes,  but  he  re- 
fused to  be  rescued  that  night  while  the  water 
continued  to  rise,  and  the  temperature  lowered, 
and  asked  to  be  left  until  low  water  in  the  morning. 
As  the  sun  rose  Printz  took  Roan  and  went  to 
the  relief  of  Barrille.  The  water  was  so  low  that 
both  were  able  to  ride  on  one  horse  without  swim- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  147 

ming.  Barille  had  been  twenty-four  hours  with- 
out food  or  sleep  but  he  had  a  well-rounded 
experience. 

Our  adventures  in  the  canyons  proved  that  a 
farther  effort  to  cross  the  range  here  with  supplies 
was  hopeless.  There  still  remained  a  glacier 
leading  to  Mt.  Dall  along  which  there  appeared 
to  be  a  break  through  the  range,  but  this  was 
not  practicable  with  horses,  and  therefore  of  no 
use  to  us. 

We  returned  to  Parker  House  to  devise  some 
other  line  of  attack.  The  pass-seeking  adventure 
was  a  hopeless  failure,  but  the  many  discoveries 
of  glaciers,  mountains,  and  rivers  were  sufficient 
reward  for  the  hard  experiences. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Northward  to  Mt.  McKinley  over  New  Gold 
Diggings 

FAILING  to  force  the  Yentna  Pass  our  next 
route  to  the  west  was  along  the  Kichatna 
and  through  Simpson  Pass.  But  before  such  an 
attempt  could  be  made  the  horses  must  feed  up 
and  be  allowed  time  to  recuperate.  The  long  drive 
overland  from  Tyonok  and  the  hard  life  in  the 
Yentna  with  very  little  grass  all  along  so  reduced 
the  pack  train  that  the  animals  were  unable  to 
assume  the  hardships  of  the  mosquito-pestered 
Kichatna.  There  were  three  arguments  which 
induced  us  to  try  a  reconnoissance  northward 
to  Mt.  McKinley.  In  prospect  it  did  not  seem  a 
difficult  horse  trail,  and  food  was  abundant.  There- 
fore the  horses  would  rest  and  regain  strength  for 
the  more  serious  effort  later  to  the  west.  The 
country  over  which  we  were  to  travel  was  the 
new  dreamland  of  the  prospector,  and  our  ex- 
ploration of  it  would  give  a  map  of  what  was 
a  blank  on  the  charts,  and  above  all  it  was  the 
most  direct  route  to  the  base  of  Mt.  McKinley, 
a  distance  of  seventy  miles. 

With   these  points   in   view  we   refitted   from 

148 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  149 

Parker  House  for  a  month's  campaign.  From  the 
highlands  to  the  west  of  the  Yentna  we  had  pre- 
viously picked  a  trail  for  the  first  stage  of  this 
journey.  Between  the  two  forks  we  must  cross 
five  miles  of  jungle,  then  cross  the  east  fork  of  the 
Yentna,  and  ascend  Mt.  Kliskon.  To  cut  trail 
Browne,  Printz,  and  Miller  were  sent  out  early  in 
the  morning  of  July  3d.  The  pack  train  followed 
in  the  afternoon.  The  water  was  high  and  we  had 
still  to  cross  several  deep  streams  of  the  west  fork, 
in  each  of  which  we  got  thoroughly  drenched.  In 
the  jungle  over  the  newly  made  trail  travelling 
was  at  first  good.  There  were  large  spruce,  birch, 
and  Cottonwood  trees  and  a  dense  underbrush  of 
willows  and  alders.  Now  again  we  rose  and  to  a 
hill  where  the  light  fell  through  the  narrow  gap 
between  the  trees  and  illuminated  luxurious  grass 
fields  to  which  the  horses  ran  with  delight.  Around 
some  erratic  boulders  we  found  wild  currants  and 
cranberries.  Squirrels  and  fool-hens  made  the  air 
ring  with  a  note  of  life,  while  bear  trails  and  moose 
tracks  kept  the  nimrods  keyed  up  to  a  pitch  of 
excitement,  but  we  were  too  busy  to  hunt. 

We  had  counted  on  crossing  this  neck  of  land 
in  a  few  hours  but  we  were  misled.  Our  bird's-eye 
view  from  above  indicated  a  soft  green  wilderness 
with  a  decorative  park-like  grouping  of  the  spruce, 
the  alders,  and  the  cotton  woods.  There  were  many 
deep  slews  and  marshes  which  we  did  not  see 
until  we  plunged  in  muddy  waters.  Finally  as  the 
chill  of  night  increased  and  the  song  of  the  mos- 


ISO  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

quitoes  saddened,  we  were  confronted  by  a  deep 
stream  with  cut  banks  on  both  sides,  which  we 
could  not  cross.  We  camped  on  the  bank  of  the 
slew,  and  before  morning  the  stream  rose  and  the 
whole  jungle  seemed  to  be  afloat. 

In  the  pouring  rain  we  started  to  find  some 
ford  but  we  waded  for  miles  through  brush  and 
mud  without  being  able  to  cross.  Another  slew 
drove  us  back  until  we  wearied  of  doubling  upon 
our  back  trail.  It  was  an  innocent,  quiet-appearing 
band  of  water  not  more  than  one  hundred  feet 
wide.  In  a  desperate  mood  we  resolved  to  cross 
it.  When  men  slip  and  stumble  over  roots  and 
entangling  wallows  in  ice  water  waist  deep  for 
hours  the  thought  of  a  swim  comes  as  a  sort  of 
relief.  But  some  of  our  men  could  not  swim  and 
others  who  could  were  so  cold  that  they  did  not 
dare  to  venture. 

Two  horses  voluntarily  plunged  in,  and  with  loud 
snorts  they  struck  out  for  the  other  shore.  The 
poor  creatures  with  oiir  instruments  and  matches 
and  sugar  and  other  precious  things  swam  about 
for  a  long  time  before  they  were  able  to  gain  a 
footing  on  the  opposite  shore.  Completely  ex- 
hausted and  nearly  frozen  to  death  they  finally 
reached  bottom  in  the  brush  but  were  unable  to 
drag  themselves  out  of  the  deep  water.  In  my 
eagerness  to  get  to  these  sinking  animals  I  tried 
to  mount  my  horse  without  taking  off  his  heavy 
pack  and  urged  him  into  the  water.  He  was  a 
good  swimmer  but  objected   to   being  mounted 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  151 

while  carrying  a  pack  saddle.  We  edged  along  to 
find  a  favourable  jumping-off  place.  Without  my 
consent  the  horse  jumped  a  fallen  tree  and  bucked 
me  several  feet  into  the  air  after  which  I  went 
down  to  what  seemed  like  several  leagues  of  wet- 
ness. When  I  had  a  chance  to  catch  my  breath  I 
found  myself  drifting  down  stream  within  reach 
of  my  struggling  horse.  Separately  we  struck  out 
for  the  other  horses  in  trouble.  Browne  and 
Printz  felled  a  tree  and  managed  to  cross  on  it, 
as  did  also  Prof.  Parker,  but  they  sank  to  their 
necks  before  crossing  and  might  have  swam  over 
with  less  discomfort.  All  the  others  managed  to 
cross  holding  to  a  pack  strap  or  the  tail  of  a  horse 
and  made  easy  work  of  it.  To  the  other  side  of 
the  slew  we  waded  through  a  flooded  flat  grabbing 
the  limbs  of  trees,  monkey  fashion,  to  keep  from 
having  our  feet  glued  to  the  mud  bottom.  We  all 
breathed  a  sigh  of  relief  when  we  rose  on  to  a  ridge 
where  we  found  a  good  bear  trail  going  our  way. 
Bears  usually  went  our  way  but  they  only  came 
our  way  when  we  were  unarmed. 

Soon  after  we  saw  the  beautiful  green  slopes  of 
Mt.  Kliskon  and  the  wide  flats  of  the  east  fork,  and 
now  it  remained  only  for  us  to  find  a  ford  to  be  able 
to  get  up  into  the  mountains  and  out  of  this  de- 
testable floating  lowland  with  its  pests  of  mos- 
quitoes and  its  run  of  icy  waters.  But  the  hope 
of  a  better  country  was  very  slowly  realised. 
Indeed  when  we  did  get  into  the  high  country  we 
still  had  water  troubles  of  another  kind. 


152  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

We  jumped  out  of  the  jungle  on  to  the  bars  of  silt 
and  began  to  cross  the  river.  We  forded  for  sev- 
eral miles  across  stream,  up  and  down,  taking  one 
slew  after  another,  all  over  dangerous  quicksands, 
where  the  horses  would  mire  and  tumble  and  roll 
amid  stream  with  the  packs.  The  last  stream  was 
about  five  hundred  feet  wide,  very  swift  and  deep. 
This  we  could  not  attempt,  reduced  as  we  were  by 
the  day's  troubles.  There  was  an  alluring  camp- 
ing spot  about  two  miles  south  and  to  it  we  betook 
ourselves  over  the  many  slews  which  we  had  to 
cross.  From  this  camp  we  saw  several  miners' 
tents  on  the  other  shore.  After  a  rest  and  a  meal 
we  managed  to  signal  to  the  strangers  to  bring  a 
boat  and  ferry  us  over.  The  horses  without  packs 
were  run  into  the  main  river  and  swam  splendidly, 
but  they  were  carried  a  long  way  down  stream. 
These  tents  marked  the  location  of  what  had  been 
intended  as  a  miners'  town,  but  the  east  fork  was 
not  found  to  be  navigable  to  that  point,  and  there- 
fore the  town  moved  down  stream  eight  miles. 

Rain  or  storm  did  not  as  a  rule  delay  our  advance 
but  our  next  day's  march  was  over  the  miners' 
trail,  climbing  steep  slopes  through  dense  under- 
brush. It  rained  every  day  at  sometime.  During 
a  stay  of  two  days  with  the  miners  there  was  no 
interruption  in  the  downpour.  With  swollen 
mountain  torrents  and  wet  brush  before  us  we 
were  forced  to  await  better  weather.  From  the 
prospectors  we  gathered  that  there  was  a  trail 
for  eighteen  miles  over  the  mountains  to  Sun- 


MT.  DISSTON  AND  THE  GATHERING  BASINS  EAST 


RUTH  GLACIER 
The  Tokosha  Mountaio) 


J 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  153 

flower,  a  miners'  camp  and  beyond  the  country 
was  said  to  be  possible  everywhere  for  horses. 

We  packed  our  horses  on  the  morning  of  the  7  th 
for  the  chmb  of  Mt.  KHskon.  It  was  still  raining, 
but  in  the  course  of  an  hour  the  rain  stopped, 
the  air  thickened,  and  a  wet  dew  blackened  the 
day.  As  we  edged  along  a  roaring  mountain  torrent, 
cold  whiffs  of  wind  brushed  the  jungle  and  flooded 
us  with  a  freezing  drip.  The  ground  was  soft  and 
little  angry  streams  rushed  at  us  from  every  ledge. 
The  horses  after  their  long  rest  set  up  a  lively  gait 
but  soon  the  feeble  animals  fell  back  and  before 
rising  out  of  the  timber  line  they  were  exhausted. 
Two  sorrels  rolled  down  hill  for  several  hundred 
feet  with  their  packs.  We  gathered  up  the  bags 
and  again  put  on  the  diamond  hitch  but  both 
animals  collapsed.  The  horses'  packs  were  then 
removed,  and  the  train  moved  along  up  a  steep 
incline  through  grass  six  feet  high  to  a  camping 
place  under  the  birch  trees  along  the  edge  of  the 
tree  line. 

It  was  about  noon  when  we  camped.  The 
freezing  wind  eased,  the  sky  cleared,  and  a  bright 
warm  sun  soon  changed  the  shivering  atmosphere 
into  one  of  surprising  warnith  and  scenic  grandeur. 
The  gap  through  the  Yentna  canyons  was  choked 
by  clouds  bunched  tightly  and  hurrying  rapidly 
to  the  west.  The  great  winding  bed  of  the  Yentna 
visible  for  fifty  miles  was  marked  by  a  wide  zone 
of  trees  and  above  were  extensive  meadows  of 
tall  grass  running  to  mosses  and  lichens  and  snowy 


154  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

peaks.  The  horses  sank  in  the  grass  grunting 
with  a  joy  of  fulness.  The  men  stretched  Hnes 
around  twin  camp-fires  and  dried  out  their  cloth- 
ine  which  had  been  wet  for  weeks.  With  a  fill  of 
bacon  and  beans,  rice  and  curry,  and  beautifully 
browned  biscuits,  all  around  the  soft  blazes  of 
a  birch  camp-fire,  with  a  superb  outlook,  the 
tormenting  rapids  with  their  frigid  perils  were 
left  far  behind.  Life  had  indeed  for  us  a  new 
aspect. 

It  rained  most  of  the  night  and  in  the  morning 
we  were  pelted  with  hail.  Good  weather  does  come 
occasionally  but  like  the  gold  it  is  found  in  small 
bits.  Our  prospective  route  from  here  was  along 
easy  grassy  slopes,  around  bunches  of  alders  into 
a  saddle.  With  bright  hopes  we  packed  for  Sun- 
flower. Local  showers  flushed  us  as  we  rose  but 
these  did  not  bother  us  as  much  as  did  the  increas- 
ing pools  in  the  muskeg.  We  naturally  supposed 
that  as  we  got  to  the  top  of  the  mountain  the  water 
and  mosquitoes  which  followed  us  everywhere 
through  the  low  country  would  leave  us,  but  not 
so,  it  was  water  everywhere  with  an  increasing 
sacrifice  of  blood  for  the  omnipresent  insects. 

For  mountaineering  in  Alaska  one  requires  a 
good  deal  of  dexterity  in  dodging  water.  Along 
the  sea  level  the  waters  have  an  inconvenient  way 
of  tumbling  over  you  unexpectedly,  and  one  looks 
forward  with  delight  to  the  time  when  in  ascending 
rivers  the  wind-pitched  swell  of  the  ocean  can  do 
no  harm.     On  the  rivers  one  gets  entangled  in 


^  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  155 

snags  and  goes  aground  so  often  that  it  becomes 
a  constant  swim  to  keep  the  boat  afloat.  Leaving 
the  river  bed  one  plunges  into  a  dripping  under- 
brush and  gets  a  shower  bath  with  shivers  com- 
pared to  which  swimming  glacial  streams  is  easy. 
Beyond  the  forest  and  the  brush  we  break  through 
beautiful  carpets  of  moss  into  water  and  mud, 
waist  deep.  Rising  out  of  the  floating  lowlands 
into  the  magnificently  painted  uplands  we  prepare 
for  the  luxury  of  dry  feet.  The  camp-fire  is  built, 
we  dry  out,  scrape  off  the  accumulation  of  mud, 
and  continue  our  ascent  into  the  hills,  but  the 
water  follows  us.  It  spouts  out  of  the  side  hill,  it 
shoots  over  the  rocks,  it  oozes  from  everywhere. 
On  the  top  of  the  mountain  we  fall  into  it.  Along 
the  rivers  far  below  we  were  forced  to  climb  trees  to 
get  out  of  the  water.  In  coming  up  it  rushed  out 
at  us.  On  the  top  it  bubbled  up  at  us.  Even  above 
the  clouds  we  did  not  get  away  from  the  water, 
for  then  snow  fell  on  us  from  a  clear  sky.  Water 
from  below,  water  from  above,  water  everywhere. 
To  climb  Alaskan  mountains  we  should  be  web 
footed  and  duck-feathered  and  wing-finned  like 
the  penguin. 

During  this  amphibious  climbing  several  horses 
failed  and  we  were  again  forced  to  carry  their  packs 
after  a  half  day's  travel.  Camp  was  pitched  in  the 
saddle  on  a  little  dome  which  sloped  to  quivering 
marshes.  Around  a  carefully  nursed  miniature 
fire  of  green  willows  we  tried  to  absorb  hard-earned 
comfort.     To  the  north  was  the  snow-streaked 


156  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

summit  of  Mt.  Kliskon,  and  from  one  of  its  glacial 
worn  shoulders  we  hoped  to  get  a  look  at  Mt. 
McKinley,  with  a  peep  into  the  run  of  troubles 
before  us  for  the  next  few  days.  The  tents  were 
pinned  down  on  the  hummocky  muskeg,  and  on 
it  we  folded  ourselves  like  pocket-knives  to  fit  the 
particular  ditch  which  fell  to  our  lot.  It  rained 
most  of  the  night,  and  the  hills,  only  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  above,  were  blanketed  with  fresh  snow. 
As  we  crawled  out  of  the  tent  to  straighten  out  the 
kinks  in  our  twisted  bodies  we  saw  the  horses 
leisurely  browsing  in  new  spots  of  green,  where  the 
winter  snow  had  but  recently  melted.  The  air 
was  flavoured  with  a  wintry  bitterness,  but  the 
following  clouds  and  the  crimson  sunbursts  indi- 
cated better  weather.  A  day  of  rest  was  declared 
for  the  horses  while  we  scattered  to  explore  the 
country  about.  Parker  and  Browne  climbed  to  the 
summit  of  Mt.  KHskon.  Porter  and  Barrille  moved 
from  peak  to  peak  to  make  a  topographic  outline. 
With  Miller  and  Beecher  I  prepared  to  climb  the 
nearest  peak  to  plan  our  future  movement.  We 
ascended  the  most  northerly  peak  over  easy  grassy 
slopes  to  its  stmimit.  The  altitude  was  3  500  feet.  It 
had  rained  and  hailed  during  the  night,  but  the  day 
was  clear  with  a  cold  wind  driving  out  of  a  northern 
snow  field.  To  the  west  the  view  was  obscured 
by  other  peaks.  To  the  north  and  east  there  was 
an  unobstructed  spread  of  scenic  surprises. 

The  three  greatest  peaks  of  the  Alaska  Range, 
Mts.  Russell,  Foraker,  and  McKinley  rose  out  of  a 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  157 

wild  maze  of  peaks  and  gaps.  The  middle  slopes 
were  being  swept  by  a  few  clouds  which  gave  the 
peaks  an  unnatural  height.  About  Mt.  Russell 
we  noted  high  snow  fields  and  to  the  east  of  Mt. 
Foraker  a  wide  open  space  which  we  took  to  be 
the  gathering  basin  of  the  glaciers  since  given 
the  names  of  Yentna  and  Huntington.  There  was 
what  appeared  to  be  a  southeasterly  ridge  extend- 
ing from  the  easy  upper  slopes  of  Mt.  McKinley 
which  interested  us  very  much,  but  this  later  proved 
to  be  an  optical  illusion,  for  instead  of  a  continuous 
ridge  it  was  a  line  of  peaks  including  Mt.  Disston, 
all  separated  by  narrow  canyons.  To  the  eastward 
there  was  a  great  rolling  country  extending  from 
the  sharp  snow-streaked  foothills  downward  by 
easy  stages  to  the  lakes  and  marshes  and  forests 
that  parallel  the  Susitna.  This  is  the  new  gold 
country  known  to  the  miners  under  the  name  of 
the  Yentna  diggings.  As  we  searched  with  our 
glasses  along  the  creeks  we  saw  several  miners' 
tents,  and  about  ten  miles  away  on  a  bluff  to  the 
side  of  a  large  creek  we  noted  five  tents  and  this 
we  took  to  be  Sunflower. 

About  three  miles  beyond  Sunflower,  we  saw 
a  beautiful  lake  out  of  which  poured  the  water  and 
the  gold  of  Lake  Creek.  This  lake  was  surrounded 
by  a  great  green  expanse  that  appeared  like  finely 
cultured  farm  lands  with  fruit  trees  and  waving 
fields  of  grain.  And  about  four  miles  beyond  there 
was  a  deep  depression  through  which  poured  the 
Kahilitna  River. 


158  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Plans  were  now  made  for  the  future  line  of 
march.  The  pack  train  must  descend  about  one 
thousand  feet  and  move  over  a  muskeg  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  lake,  ford  Lake  Creek,  and 
continue  over  similar  country  to  the  Kahilitna 
and  from  thence  westerly  through  the  lower  foot- 
hills to  the  south  of  Mt.  McKinley.  With  this 
itinerary  in  view  Beecher  was  sent  back  with 
instructions  to  the  packers  to  proceed  to  Sun- 
flower, while  Miller  and  I  pushed  on  to  examine 
the  land  over  w^hich  our  next  march  was  to  be 
made.  We  had  left  camp  without  carrying  lunch, 
intending  to  return  in  a  few  hours,  but  the  hours 
passed  rapidly,  and  we  descended  and  stumbled 
over  the  muskeg  to  the  first  miner's  camp.  We 
saw  no  one  around,  and  as  our  appetites  were 
sharpened  and  we  were  tired  we  invited  ourselves 
to  the  hospitality  of  the  camp. 

There  was  a  cache  built  of  logs  and  raised  on 
the  stumps  of  four  trees.  It  was  a  picturesque 
little  hut,  out  of  the  reach  of  bears  and  wolves, 
and  almost  out  of  the  reach  of  miners.  We 
improvised  a  ladder  and  found  under  a  canvas 
roof  a  large  supply  of  flour,  bacon,  and  beans.  A 
curious  log  cabin  with  a  canvas  roof  was  next  ex- 
amined. It  had  luxurious  furnishings  for  a  pros- 
pector's shack.  A  sled  was  raised  for  a  table, 
there  was  a  block  of  wood  for  a  chair,  and  two 
raised  beds  of  roughly  hewn  wood  and  brush.  A 
Yukon  stove  completed  the  fittings.  All  kinds  of 
delicacies  were  hidden  under  the  beds  and  about 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  159 

the  corners.  Tins  of  condensed  milk,  cans  of  meat, 
jars  of  marmalade,  butter,  and  biscuits.  We  had 
been  without  food  for  ten  hours  and  to  stumble 
upon  such  an  array  of  tempting  things  was  beyond 
our  power  to  resist.  We  helped  ourselves  to  a 
modest  lunch  out  of  the  open  tins  when  we  dis- 
covered the  following  legend : 

NOTICE. 

This  camp  is  the  property  of  Sam.  Wagner,  and  anybody  coming 
along  is  welcome  to  use  camp.  Leave  it  as  you  find  it  and  pack 
away  what  you  bring.  Use  your  own  provisions  as  these  don't 
grow  here.  If  any  one  steals  anything  from  here,  he  will  be  treated 
with  a  gun  as  a  common  thief  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the 
land. 

Sam.  S.  Wagner. 

With  the  food  choking  us  we  started  for  Sun- 
flower to  face  the  law  of  the  land.  It  was  a  leg- 
breaking  run  of  five  miles  over  hummocks,  into 
soft  marshes,  through  brush  that  tore  our  cloth- 
ing in  strings,  and  across  deep,  swift  streams.  At 
Sunflower  we  were  heartily  received  by  the  miners, 
and  Mr.  McDonald,  the  principal  promoter  of  the 
new  stampede,  invited  us  to  his  overcrowded 
camp  to  await  our  pack  train.  As  we  were  adding 
to  the  previously  unfinished  meal  vSam  Wagner 
joined  us.  We  explained  our  misdeed  at  his 
camp  and  he  eased  our  consciences  by  inviting  us 
to  a  smoke. 

Just  why  this  camp  was  christened  " Sunflower" 
it  is  hard  to  conceive.  Before  entering  its  spruce 
studded  and  brushy  confines  we  were  forced  to 
ford  several  icy  streams  and  as  we  ascended  the 


i6o  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

bliiff  the  cold  water  dripped  from  our  torn  shirts 
and  trousers.  With  chattering  teeth  and  boots 
full  of  cold  water  we  were  attacked  by  clouds  of 
mosquitoes  who  took  advantage  of  our  reduced 
courage.  The  spirit  with  which  one  enters  Sun- 
flower is  not  in  accord  with  the  conception  of  a 
land  of  sunflowers. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Over  Gold-Strewn  Lowlands  to  Mt.  McKinley 
FROM  THE  South 

TN  THE  course  of  two  days  during  which  it 
^  rained  constantly  the  pack  train  came  along 
and  Prof.  Parker  reported  having  had  a  terrible 
time  crossing  marshes.  The  grass  however  was 
good  and  in  spite  of  hard  work  the  horses  steadily 
improved.  At  noon  on  the  1 2th  we  started  for  the 
Kahilitna,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Indian 
Susitna  Pete,  "he  of  many  devils,"  whom  Mc- 
Donald loaned  to  us  for  three  days.  Pete  infused 
new  humour  in  our  camp  life  but  his  appalling 
laziness  was  a  bad  example  for  the  discipline  of 
our  party.  Pete  had  never  seen  pack  horses  at 
close  range  before,  and  he  took  a  keen  interest 
in  the  animals.  Furthermore  he  was  openly  in- 
quisitive as  to  our  motives  in  bringing  so  many 
men  and  so  large  an  outfit  into  a  wilderness  where 
even  his  own  people  could  not  subsist.  His  con- 
tact with  the  miners  led  him  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  new  invasion  was  for  gold.  There  could 
be  no  other  incentive  to  push  so  desperately  into 
a  land  of  hardships.  Pete  had  himself  found  a 
hatful  of  nuggets  which  he  sold  for  four  hundred 

161 


1 62  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

dollars,  and  he  agreed  to  guide  us  to  where  gold 
was  "heap  plenty."  We  told  Pete  we  were  not 
after  gold,  and  asked  him  to  guide  us  to  the  top 
of  the  big  mountain,  to  which  Pete  did  not  reply 
but  cast  at  us  a  searching  eye,  thinking  perhaps 
that  either  we  did  not  tell  the  truth  or  there  was 
something  wrong  with  the  arrangement  of  our 
heads.  After  a  little  better  acquaintance  he 
seemed  to  prefer  to  believe  that  we  shammed 
a  dislike  for  gold. 

With  Pete  in  the  lead  the  horses  struck  up  a 
lively  gait  out  of  Sunflower,  over  grassy  swamps, 
around  beautiful  lakes  in  which  floated  pond 
lilies,  through  widely  separated  groups  of  spruce 
trees  around  which  roamed  ptarmigan  with  their 
chicks  just  leaving  their  nests,  to  Lake  Creek.  Here 
Pete  sat  down  and  waited  to  see  what  we  would 
do.  There  was  a  raft  of  two  logs  tied  together 
by  suspenders  in  the  lower  lake,  and  this  was 
captured  by  Parker  and  Browne  for  crossing.  As 
they  pushed  out  into  the  current,  the  suspenders 
broke,  the  logs  separated,  and  the  rafters  were 
forced  to  straddle  both  logs,  and  pole  in  an  exciting 
fashion.  Parker  had  lost  faith  in  the  fording 
of  the  cayuses,  and  took  to  rafting  as  a  relief 
from  the  peril  of  the  rapids,  but  this  rafting  ex- 
perience brought  him  back  to  his  horse  with  re- 
newed friendship.  The  other  members  of  the 
party  each  secured  his  favourite  cayuse  and 
prepared  to  ford  or  swim  as  was  our  habit  in  the 
Yentna.     The  horses  were  urged  to  jump  with 


OUT  OF  GREAT  BLUE  CAVERNS   AND   OVER  PRECIPICES,  THE  GLACIAL  WATERS 
POUR  WITH  A   MADDENING   RUSH 


THE  I'LUNf;K  OK  THK  CLACIAL  SIKEAMS 
Face  of  Huntinffton  Glacier 


L 


a 


t  J3 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  163 

men  and  packs  from  the  bank  into  what  seemed 
a  shallow  stream,  but  it  proved  to  be  just  short 
of  swimming  water.  Pete  instead  of  guiding 
us  watched  each  horse  to  see  where  he  could 
pick  an  easy  crossing  and  then  pulling  up  his  hip 
boots  he  followed  in  water  that  was  not  more 
than  knee  deep.  Just  before  stepping  ashore  he 
stumbled  into  a  pool  and  sank  to  his  neck.  We 
pulled  him  out  sputtering  Indian  swear -words 
and  prepared  to  continue  the  march,  but  Pete 
insisted  on  building  a  camp-fire  to  warm  up  and 
dry  out.  We  were  about  as  cold  and  wet  as  Pete, 
but  the  pack  train  could  not  be  halted  on  such 
a  pretext.  We  must  warm  up  with  increased 
exercise. 

Late  at  night  we  came  to  an  edge  of  a  bluff  and 
beyond  we  saw  the  face  of  a  large  glacier  from 
which  rushed  the  first  waters  of  the  Kahilitna.  We 
descended  about  seven  hundred  feet  and  pitched 
camp  in  the  basin.  On  the  following  day  we  crossed 
the  river,  edging  along  to  get  the  water  as  shallow 
as  possible  in  small  slews.  We  were  two  hours 
crossing  this  river  as  the  water  was  spread  over 
an  area  of  over  three  miles.  Keeping  close  to  the 
northern  side  of  the  glacier  we  cut  trail  through 
small  spruce  and  dense  underbrush  over  an  old 
moraine.  We  camped  at  a  point  where  eighteen 
years  before  the  Susitna  chief  had  hunted  moose. 
But  so  far  as  we  were  able  to  find  out  the  place 
had  not  been  visited  since.  The  next  day  we 
rose  out  of  the  brush  and  timl)cr,  left  the  glacier, 


1 64  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

and  followed  a  stream  which  the  miners  have 
named  Dutch  Creek. 

Camping  in  a  bunch  of  Cottonwood  where 
Pete  declared  there  was  lots  of  gold  we  panned 
the  creeks  and  found  colour  but  no  pay  dirt.  The 
pools  were  alive  with  trout  and  bear  tracks  were 
so  numerous  that  no  one  would  venture  away 
from  camp  without  a  gun.  Pete  declared  there 
were  seven  moose  beyond  the  next  ridge,  and  that 
ahead  there  were  plenty  of  caribou.  He  started 
out  to  do  big  shooting  but  he  returned  in  a  few 
hours  without  meat,  still  asserting  that  there 
were  moose  and  caribou  beyond  the  next  range. 

The  march  of  the  following  day  took  us  over  the 
watersheds,  through  the  head  waters  of  Dutch 
Creek  into  Bear  Creek.  Descending  Bear  Creek  we 
came  to  a  sudden  opening  of  a  "U"  shaped  val- 
ley on  a  bluff  from  which  we  were  able  to  gather 
the  first  knowledge  of  the  land  to  the  south  and 
east  near  Mt.  McKinley.  Two  huge  glaciers  poured 
through  parallel  gaps  and  their  waters,  passing 
around  a  group  of  jagged  peaks,  which  Pete 
called  Tokosha,  united  to  make  the  Tokositna 
River.  Upon  one  of  these  glaciers  we  hoped  to 
find  a  highway  to  Mt.  McKinley.  We  descended 
about  a  thousand  feet,  cut  trail  through  a  dense 
jungle  of  willows  and  alders,  and  camped  in  the 
basin  of  the  Tokositna. 

Pete  had  been  with  us  his  allotted  time  and 
was  told  that  he  might  return  to  the  miners' 
camp,  but  he  enjoyed  our  camps  and  our  food 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  165 

and  above  all  he  was  still  thoroughly  inquisitive 
as  to  our  motives.  The  mountain-climbing  pro- 
ject he  was  not  inclined  to  take  seriously,  but  he 
also  began  to  doubt  our  mission  for  gold,  for  he 
showed  us  gold  and  we  did  not  stake  the  ground 
as  did  the  prospectors.  Instead  of  using  the  picks, 
the  shovel  and  pan,  we  went  about  with  pencil 
and  paper  and  all  kinds  of  instruments,  which  he 
did  not  understand.  The  cameras,  the  barometers, 
the  thermometers,  the  prismatic  compass,  and  all 
of  the  other  apparatus  came  in  for  a  careful  scru- 
tiny. When  the  topographer  got  out  his  plane 
table,  theodolite,  and  steel  tape  and  began  to 
measure  a  base  line,  then  Pete  looked  up  with 
a  sigh  of  relief,  for  according  to  his  understanding 
we  were  measuring  off  claims. 

While  peeping  through  the  telescope  of  the 
theodolite,  Pete  thought  he  discovered  a  bear 
digging  out  a  ground  rat  far  up  in  the  mountains. 
His  face  lit  up  with  a  knowing  expression.  At  last 
he  had  discovered  our  real  vocation.  All  of 
this  strange  apparatus  was  to  locate  wild  animals 
and  in  some  mysterious  way  to  place  the  gold 
deposits  on  a  map,  and  for  several  days  he  made 
himself  comfortable  about  camp  at  our  expense 
to  verify  his  guesses  at  our  mission.  As  a  guide 
Pete  was  a  failure,  for  our  horsemen  preferred  to 
pick  their  own  way.  But  as  a  character  study 
he  made  a  splendid  model. 

We  had  about  reached  the  limit  of  advance  by 
pack  train,  therefore  in  our  future  efforts  we  must 


1 66  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

make  pack  animals  of  ourselves.  The  horses 
were  left  in  charge  of  Printz  to  graze  in  the  low- 
lands while  a  scouting  trip  was  planned  to  the 
top  of  a  system  of  foothills  from  which  we  hoped  to 
outline  our  future  campaign.  We  expected  to 
follow  the  glacier  far  into  the  foothills,  and  then 
climb  some  peak  offering  a  favourable  outlook,  but 
the  lower  glacier  was  impossible  because  of  its 
troublesome  hills  of  moraine  material. 

The  stream  was  too  deep  and  swift  to  ford  and 
it  rushed  out  of  a  canyon  in  which  we  could  not 
gain  a  footing.  As  a  last  resort  we  cut  trail  through 
the  lower  brush  and  climbed  to  an  old  glacier  shelf 
at  twenty-seven  hundred  feet.  Following  this 
bench  northward  for  several  miles  we  climbed  to  the 
top  of  a  peak  eighteen  miles  south  of  Mt.  McKinley. 
Pete  had  not  been  asked  to  join  the  party  but  he 
followed  our  tracks,  and  as  we  got  to  the  difficult 
climb  over  steep  slate  slopes  we  waited  for  him 
to  catch  up.  Since  he  was  with  us  in  the  role 
of  a  guide  and  helper,  I  turned  over  my  rucksack 
to  him  but  he  protested  against  carrying  it  saying 
his  feet  were  sore  and  his  shoulders  pained.  The 
pack  remained  on  his  back,  however. 

The  first  outlook  from  the  summit  was  disap- 
pointing. Dark  clouds  screened  the  higher  foothills 
and  also  the  middle  slopes  of  the  great  mountain. 
Parker  and  Browne  climbed  another  peak  and  as 
they  neared  the  top,  for  a  few  brief  moments  the 
southerly  face  with  its  death-dealing  plunges  of 
sheer  granite  cliffs  was  unveiled.     After  a  quick 


FOOT-HILLS  EAST  OF  MT.  DISSTON 


H)V  (>l-   IIKVANT  ri-:AK.s 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  167 

but  careful  examination  Prof.  Parker  pronounced 
the  mountain  unclimbable  from  the  south  and 
east,  and  advised  against  any  further  advance 
from  that  side  with  a  view  of  climbing.  I  was 
inclined  to  coincide  with  the  Professor  but  desired 
to  camp  at  our  point  of  observation  to  watch  the 
walls  of  the  great  mountain  with  its  easterly 
environment  under  changing  conditions  of  light 
and  shadow.  For  this  purpose  Browne  volun- 
teered to  stay  with  me.  While  the  mountaineering 
aspect  of  our  project  was  discouraged  by  the  first 
views,  the  chances  for  important  exploration  had 
increased,  and  to  this  end  orders  were  sent  with 
the  returning  men  to  move  the  main  camp 
with  the  horses  to  the  side  of  the  lateral  moraine 
at  the  base  of  the  mountain  upon  which  we  were 
encamped. 

The  silk  tent  was  soon  erected,  the  teapot  filled 
with  snow,  and  the  alcohol  lamp  cheered  the 
frosty  air.  The  sun  sank  under  the  clouds 
behind  a  system  of  new  mountains.  The  glory 
of  colour  and  contour  was  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
camera,  and  beyond  our  powers  of  interpretation. 
We  were  permitted  only  to  see  bits  of  fascinating 
landscape  through  openings  in  the  screen  of  vapour, 
wherein  we  noted  huge  cornices  showered  by  gold 
and  great  gaps  levelled  by  a  liquid-blue  and  purple. 
We  drew  the  robes  about  us  and  peeped  out  every 
few  moments.  The  clouds  seemed  to  settle  and 
freeze  to  the  icy  armour  of  the  mountains. 

The    purple    haze    faded    with    the    afterglow 


1 68  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

and  a  milky  whiteness  spread  over  the  great  naked 
peaks  with  a  sky-line  of  the  purest  alabaster  which 
remained  all  night  as  the  sun  edged  along  the  north 
pole.  During  the  night  the  temperature  was 
low  and  the  wind  strong,  but  we  were  so  eager 
to  see  the  changing  run  of  light  and  colour  of  the 
weird,  fantastic  figures  over  which  the  eye  ran  to 
the  glimmer  of  dawn  that  our  shivers  seemed  only 
as  pauses  in  the  reading  of  the  poetry  of  an  arctic 
dreamland. 

The  overwhelming  bigness  of  the  whole  scheme 
of  new  mountain  wilderness  did  not  impress  us 
until  the  first  beams  of  light  burned  on  the  sky- 
scraped  peaks,  and  shot  through  gaps  into  the 
yawning  cuts  which  separated  the  buttresses  from 
each  other.  The  light  and  colour  which  during 
the  night  were  so  soft  and  delicate  now  became  as 
savage  as  the  cliffs  that  were  illuminated.  Blind- 
ing darts  shot  out  from  a  thousand  snow  slants  and 
shivering  shadows  of  indigo  sent  a  wave  of  gloom 
to  our  hearts.  Mt.  McKinley  with  its  fifteen  thou- 
sand feet  of  successive  cliffs  rose  out  of  a  crumbling, 
tumbling  sheen  of  lesser  peaks  to  the  level  of  the 
gods. 

A  larger  surprise  than  all  this  was  the  discovery 
of  a  huge  peak  midway  between  Mt.  Foraker  and 
Mt.  McKinley,  but  much  nearer  our  point  of 
observation.  We  had  seen  this  peak  from  several 
points,  but  were  inclined  to  put  jt  down  as  a  part 
of  the  general  uplift  around  the  base  of  Mt.  Mc- 
Kinley, but  now  we  clearlv  made  out  that  it  was 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  169 

a  giant  peak  in  the  midst  of  a  separate  group  of 
mountains,  divided  from  the  others  by  an  in- 
trusion of  slate.  This  mountain  was  christened 
Mt.  Disston,  in  honour  of  my  friend  Henry  Disston. 
Beyond  a  part  of  the  south-east  ridge  of  Mt.  Mc- 
Kinley  we  noted  Mt.  Hunter,  which  loomed  up  as 
a  great  mountain  from  our  line  of  ascent  from 
the  west  in  1903,  but  from  the  south  this  was 
seen  to  be  a  spur  of  the  main  mountain.  Between 
it  and  Mt.  Disston  there  was  noted  a  narrow  but 
deep  gap  through  which  Ruth  Glacier  sends  an  arm 
to  the  south  shoulder  of  Mt.  McKinley.  To  the 
south  and  west  of  Mt.  Disston  there  is  another 
wide  break  where  we  believe  Huntington  Glacier 
sends  arms  to  a  system  of  gathering  basins. 

Mt.  Disston  has  three  peaks,  the  highest  of  which 
is  14,970  feet  high.  Its  very  remarkable  position 
in  the  path  of  an  endless  train  of  heavily  laden 
clouds  coming  out  of  the  warm  Japan  current 
and  drifting  along  the  Alaska  Range  makes  it  a 
barrier.  The  great  bunches  of  vapour  sweep 
against  Mt.  Disston,  condense,  freeze,  and  the 
resulting  snow  scatters  in  the  hundreds  of  amphi- 
theatres that  feed  the  great  glaciers.  The  easterly 
drainage  of  Mt.  Disston  is  sent  by  numerous 
tributaries  into  Wyckoff  Glacier,  which  is  about  two 
and  one  half  miles  wide  and  twenty  miles  long. 

From  our  better  acquaintance  of  the  approaches 
of  Mt.  McKinley  and  its  precipitous  walls  we 
were  not  able  to  come  to  a  more  hopeful  climbing 
prospect  than  that  so  forcibly  expressed  by  Prof. 


I70  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Parker  though  we  gathered  much  other  data  for 
future  use.  Descending  to  Wyckoff  Glacier  we 
met  the  pack  train  and  pitched  camp  beside  a 
huge  boulder  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  willows. 
Here  was  good  grass  for  the  horses  and  we  planned 
to  give  them  a  long  rest  while  the  easterly  ap- 
proaches to  Mt.  McKinley  were  being  explored. 

The  climb  of  Mt.  McKinley  was  now  put  down 
as  a  hopeless  task  but  we  determined  to  devote 
about  a  week  to  the  study  of  Ruth  Glacier  and  to 
the  general  exploration  of  the  easterly  foothills. 
Mr.  Porter  selected  for  a  series  of  observations  the 
ridge  separating  the  two  glaciers. 

Parker,  Browne,  and  Barrille  joined  me  in  an 
effort  to  cross  this  ridge  to  explore  Ruth  Glacier 
into  its  tributaries.  With  the  camp  equipment 
in  our  rucksacks  we  started  on  the  morning  of 
July  2 1  St.  The  weather  was  remarkable  for 
its  short  chilly  rains  and  spells  of  burning  sunshine 
with  a  smothering  heat.  Our  route  over  the  gla- 
cier was  through  hills  of  sharp  fragments  of  granite 
and  quartz,  around  great  caverns,  over  ice  tunnels 
where  the  glacier  waters  roared  with  a  mad  rush 
en  route  to  the  lower  country.  We  were  three 
hours  in  crossing,  and  the  task  should  have  com- 
pleted the  day's  work,  but  we  were  eager  to  rise 
to  some  eminence  where  we  could  see  the  curtain 
rise  and  fall  with  the  dusk  and  dawn. 

Out  of  the  glacier  we  climbed  through  brush 
and  high  grass,  over  the  blueberries  and  flowers 
of   the  old  glacial   moraine,  crossing   bear  trails 


MT.  DISSTON  AND  MT.  McKINLEY  FROM  A  FOOT  HILL  20  MILES  SOUTH 


CAMP   SCENE  OM   NEW  GOLD   DICC.LVC.S 
In  the  low  country  south  of  Ml.  MtKinlty,  an  area  of  3,000  .stiuarr  miles  was  explored 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


171 


every  few  moments.  We  had  passed  so  many 
bear  tracks  that  this  did  not  now  excite  our 
curiosity. 

We  had  taken  no  rifles,  but  Porter  and  Browne 
had  had  such  exciting  experiences  with  the  in- 
quisitiveness  of  this  race  of  bears  that  they  in- 
sisted on  being  armed  with  Luger  pistols.  With 
the  ambition  of  a  nimrod  Browne  kept  far  in 
advance.  We  were  leisurely  trailing  into  a  deep 
gulch  along  a  picturesque  cascade  to  a  point  where 
the  stream  forked.  Browne  descended  to  the 
waters,  crossed,  and  ascended  on  a  ridge  between 
the  streams.  We  picked  an  easier  way  along  the 
right  bank  close  to  steep  slopes  to  the  other  side 
of  the  gulch  where  was  a  high  ridge  with  more 
gradual  sides  marked  by  bunches  of  alders.  We 
were  bending  our  heads  and  shoulders  under  the 
heavy  weights  of  the  rucksacks  when  Barrille 
shouted  " Bear!"  Every  fellow  at  once  braced  up 
and  looked  about  for  a  rock  or  a  tree  to  climb,  but 
there  was  nothing  in  sight  to  climb  except  big 
mountains  so  we  bunched  up  and  watched  the 
coming  of  Ursus  with  a  tight  grip  on  our  ice  axes. 
The  great  mass  of  brown  plunged  down  with  an 
alarming  speed,  turning  somersaults  in  the  high 
grass,  edging  around  precipices,  and  vanishing 
in  bunches  of  alders,  coming  like  a  dart  through 
gaps  to  hummocks,  down  and  down,  ever  near- 
ing  the  noisy  stream  which  separated  him  from 
Browne.  He  was  making  a  bee  line  for  us,  but  we 
had  gotten  new  courage  and  had  planned  a  line  of 


172  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

defence  with  our  ice  axes.  Along  the  crest  of  the 
bluff  which  must  be  climbed  to  get  to  our  flesh 
Browne  had  the  only  gun.  the  Luger  pistol.  We 
called  to  him  to  save  the  day  and  our  necks,  but 
he  did  not  understand.  He  had  not  seen  the 
thing  and  the  rush  of  the  twin  streams  was  such 
that  he  could  not  hear  what  we  said.  The  bear 
was  fording  the  waters  as  we  called,  and  began  to 
ascend  Browne's  ridge  as  he  came  toward  us  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  our  excitement.  The 
bear  came  over  the  edge  of  the  bluff  and  Browne 
met  him.  They  were  face  to  face,  not  more  than 
twenty  feet  apart.  Though  excited  Browne  quickly 
drew  his  Luger  and  took  a  slow  careful  aim.  We 
impatiently  listened  for  the  shot  and  watched 
for  its  effect  on  the  bear — but  nothing  happened. 
The  bear  stood  still,  so  did  Browne,  for  what 
seemed  to  us  several  minutes,  and  then  Browne 
slowdy  backed  about  fifty  feet,  sat  down  in  the 
grass,  and  watched  the  bear.  For  a  time  we 
believed  Browne  had  gotten  out  paper  and  pencil 
and  was  calmly  sketching  Bruin,  but  we  soon 
discovered  that  he  was  awfully  busy  with  his 
Luger — and  then  unexpectedly  the  thing  went  off. 
The  bear  jumped  into  the  stream  and  Browne 
emptied  his  Luger  to  no  effect.  With  the  bear  on 
the  run  we  gathered  new  courage  and  rushed  for- 
ward to  head  him  off  with  the  hope  that  he  would 
take  a  course  parallel  to  Browne's  ridge  where 
another  shot  might  be  more  successful,  but  the  bear 
avoided  his  chance  acquaintance  and  took  to  the 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  173 

high  hills,  where  Porter  awaited  him  over  a  plane 
table  with  equally  elusive  results. 

Rising  out  of  the  bear  haunts  we  camped  in 
a  saddle  from  which  we  could  see  both  glaciers. 
Two  days  and  two  nights  were  spent  along  the 
ridge  with  splendid  results  for  Porter  from  a 
topographer's  standpoint,  but  no  new  mountains 
or  glaciers  or  routes  to  Mt.  McKinley  were  dis- 
covered. The  weather  was  daily  assuming  a 
wintry  aspect.  The  snow  line  was  descending 
and  new  ice  forming  every  night.  The  com- 
bined result  of  this  reconnoissance  proved  to  us 
finally  the  hopelessness  of  further  mountaineering 
from  any  point  of  attack  which  could  be  reached 
before  the  coming  winter  closed  the  gates  to  the 
upper  world.  In  this  spirit  we  returned  to  camp 
to  devise  a  plan  for  further  exploration. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

With    the    Descending    Cloud  Waters   Back 
TO  the  Sea.     The  Party  Scatters 

OUR  study  of  Mt.  McKinley  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  only  possible  line  of  ascent  is  along 
the  north-east  ridge,  which  we  believe  most  acces- 
sible from  the  west.  To  reach  this  ridge,  but  more 
especially  to  reorganise,  and  collect  big  game  spe- 
cimens on  the  Arctic  Slope,  is  our  next  problem. 
In  returning  over  the  gold  country  we  have  de- 
cided to  leave  Porter  with  two  assistants,  two 
horses,  and  several  caches  of  food  to  complete  the 
map  of  the  new  country,  after  which  he  is  to  return 
by  raft  to  Susitna  Station. 

The  horses  were  now  in  splendid  trim.  The  long 
rest  and  the  young  tender  grass  near  the  glaciers 
infused  them  with  a  new  spirit.  With  light  packs 
the  return  march  over  our  old  trail  was  rapid. 
Pete  left  us  at  Dutch  Creek  to  go  to  his  camp  on 
Cache  Creek.  While  building  a  cache  on  the  Kahi- 
litna  bluff  on  the  evening  of  July  28th,  two  days 
later,  Pete  stumbled  into  camp  under  a  big  pack 
and  exclaimed,  "Glacier  busted!" 

In  crossing  the  Kahilitna  we  had  noticed  that 

174 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  175 

the  river  was  very  much  higher  and  concluded  that 
something  had  gone  wrong  with  Pete's  water  devil 
far  up  in  the  big  mountain.  But  now  Pete  ex- 
plained it  all.  He  called  our  attention  to  the  basin 
of  a  large  lake  to  the  north  side  of  Huntington 
Glacier.  In  our  northward  trip  the  water  in  this 
lake  was  almost  level  with  the  glacier.  This  water 
had  now  burrowed  a  tunnel  under  the  ice  and  had 
joined  the  other  rushing  torrents  to  swell  the 
Kahilitna. 

In  crossing  Lake  Creek  the  next  day  Pete  decided 
to  try  a  horse  and  ford  as  we  did.  He  selected  a  bay 
mare,  young  and  active,  in  fact  too  much  so  for 
the  other  members  of  our  party.  The  mare  was 
easy  to  approach  and  Pete  had  no  trouble  in  being 
friendly.  Barrille  helped  him  mount,  the  mare  shot 
off  like  an  arrow  into  mid-stream,  Pete  was  game 
and  held  on.  Suddenly  the  horse  stepped  into 
shallow  water  and  bucked.  Pete  went  several 
feet  into  the  air  and  landed  in  deep  water.  A 
wave  of  suppressed  merriment  ran  along  the  line. 

The  pack-train  moved  on  to  Sunflower.  Here 
we  camped  at  noon  to  study  the  miners'  luck. 
Gold  had  been  found  everywhere,  but  there  was 
food  nowhere.  Most  of  the  miners  had  come  in 
with  about  a  week's  supply  on  their  backs  and 
this  was  hardly  sufficient  to  reach  a  creek  and 
scratch  for  colour.  Most  of  these  prospectors  were 
leaving  in  a  disgruntled  humour.  Barrille  and 
Printz  in  fishing  with  rifles  secured  four  salmon 
weighing   about  forty  pounds   each,  and   wc   fell 


176  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

to  salmon  so  enthusiastically  that  we  did  not 
care  to  eat  fish  again  for  weeks. 

While  packing  for  our  return  to  the  Yentna, 
Pete  requested  to  be  allowed  to  follow  us  with 
his  squaw,  who  had  been  left  at  Sunflower,  and 
without  further  talk  brought  all  of  his  belongings 
to  be  packed  on  our  horses.  There  were  several 
deep  streams  to  cross  on  this  trail,  and  Pete,  either 
from  a  sense  of  humour  or  from  a  sense  of  devotion, 
secured  the  bay  mare  to  ferry  his  wife  over  the 
cold  waters.  The  mare  only  followed  him  a 
few  hundred  feet  and  then  dragged  him  through 
the  bushes  and  left  him  besmeared  with  mud. 
The  boys  persuaded  him  that  the  mare  objected 
to  his  red  sweater,  and  he  promptly  took  this  off 
and  packed  it  away,  but  he  was  not  able  to  ap- 
proach the  mare  again.  Barrille  gallantly  loaned 
his  horse  to  Pete  to  ferry  his  wife  over  the  river, 
but  afterward  it  was  difficult  to  persuade  the 
squaw  to  dismount. 

As  we  neared  the  Yentna,  Browne  and  Miller 
volunteered  to  join  me  in  the  venture  of  getting 
to  Parker  House  while  the  pack  train  moved  along 
to  Youngstown.  Our  mission  was  to  take  the 
Bolshoy  and  all  the  supplies  down  stream.  Horses 
could  not  be  used,  for  we  were  anxious  to  con- 
serve horse  strength  for  the  westward  trip.  We 
found  a  miner  who  ferried  us  across  the  main 
river,  but  after  that  we  were  left  to  our  swimming 
capacities  to  cross  the  swollen  slews.  We  reached 
the  Parker  House  late  in  the  afternoon  of  July 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  i 


/  / 


31st,  after  the  most  detestable  water  adventures 
of  the  entire  trip.  The  slews  were  high,  the  whole 
jungle  was  afloat,  and  we  were  in  water  for  about 
three  hours.  We  determined  never  to  repeat  this 
experience. 

About  Parker  House  the  whole  river  had  changed. 
The  easterly  streams  were  very  much  larger  and 
the  main  westerly  slew  had  been  reduced  to  a  mere 
rush  of  small  rapids.  Around  the  launch  a  new  bar 
had  formed  which  nearly  left  the  boat  stranded  in 
a  blind  slew.  We  built  a  camp  fire  to  thaw  out, 
then  prepared  to  fit  the  boat  for  her  descent  to 
Youngstown.  It  was  nine  o'clock  and  the  sun  had 
settled  into  the  Kuskokwim  before  we  were  ready 
to  start,  but  the  afterglow  was  bright  and  the 
July  twilight  was  promising.  Furthermore  the 
ten  miles  of  swift  waters  to  Youngstown  would 
take  us  only  an  hour.  We  dragged  over  bars,  under 
overhanging  trees,  over  roots,  and  plunged  into 
the  wider  river  near  the  forks,  with  the  speed  of  an 
automobile.  But  here,  when  we  felt  at  ease,  our 
troubles  began.  The  Bolshoy  went  aground  on  one 
bar  after  another;  finally  we  threw  out  both  an- 
chors in  disgust,  and  at  three  o'clock  we  dropped 
on  the  sands  in  the  light  of  a  big  camp-fire  for  a 
few  moments'  rest.  When  we  awoke  the  choco- 
late waters  were  fired  by  the  rising  sun  and  we 
were  buried  in  the  feathery  ashes  blown  from  the 
Cottonwood  fire.  We  were  several  hours  digging 
the  boat  out  of  the  new  deposit  of  silt  in  mid- 
stream and  at  last,  freed  by  the  main  force  of  the 


178  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

current, we  pressed  on  to  join  our  companions  at 
Youngstown. 

Barrille  was  left  in  charge,  and  John  Dokkin,  a 
miner,  was  added  to  our  expedition.  Barrille  and 
Dokkin  were  to  cut  trail  into  the  Kichatna  and 
prepare  for  the  westerly  trip  while  the  others  of 
the  expedition  went  down  the  Yentna  in  the 
Bolshoy. 

Under  less  than  half  power  we  averaged  fifteen 
miles  per  hour  in  our  plunge  with  the  descend- 
ing cloud  w^ater  to  the  sea.  If  our  motor-boat 
adventures  up  stream  w^ere  a  joy,  the  down- 
ward rush  was  a  sport  with  the  wildest  kind  of 
excitement. 

The  Bolshoy  pushed  cautiously  over  the  bars 
of  the  delta  of  the  Susitna  River  into  quiet  Cook 
Inlet  waters.  In  jtmiping  snags  and  shooting 
rapids  down  the  swift  icy  waters  we  broke  the 
rudder  and  bent  all  the  blades  of  the  propeller. 
We  might  have  beached  the  launch  and  replaced  the 
propeller,  but  the  rudder  was  beyond  repair.  We 
had  rigged  the  stern  so  two  men  could  steer  with 
oars,  and  in  the  river  this  makeshift  worked  very 
well.  Since  the  screw  was  pushing  us  along  at  the 
rate  of  eight  miles  per  hour,  and  the  boat  was  in 
perfect  control,  we  decided  that  it  was  safe  to  risk 
a  passage  over  the  thirty  miles  of  treacherous  sea 
with  a  tide  of  eight  miles  per  hour  to  Tj^onok. 
We  had  no  ballast.  The  first  ten  miles  were  cov- 
ered quickly,  but  we  noticed  that  a  sea  was  rap- 
idly rolling  out  of  the  east.      Tw^o  miners'  dories 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  179 

were  seen  edging  the  increasing  whitecaps  (one 
of  these  has  not  been  heard  of  since).  Turnagain 
Arm,  which  is  the  storm  centre  of  Cook  Inlet,  did 
not  look  bad,  but  the  increasing  force  of  the  wind 
and  sea  coming  out  of  it  made  us  anxious.  A  few 
steel-coloured  clouds,  separated  by  bright  glis- 
tening bands,  came  hurrying  out  of  the  narrow 
gap.  The  cloud  effect  was  odd,  though  not  par- 
ticularly suggestive  of  a  storm — but  the  storm 
came  quickly.  The  little  bunches  of  steel-coloured 
vapour  were  hurled  at  us  as  though  from  a  cannon. 
The  seas  with  our  course  gave  us  a  broadside 
which  made  the  little  craft  turn  and  twist  and 
crack  until  we  felt  that  she  must  go  to  pieces.  We 
were  now  compelled  to  take  the  seas  on  the  quar- 
ter, making  a  zigzag  course.  This  brought  the 
breaking,  tumbling  water  aboard.  Browne  and 
Printz  on  the  poop  steering  with  care  were 
twice  nearly  swept  over  into  the  boiling  waters, 
and  to  secure  them  they  were  fastened  by  lines 
to  the  deck.  The  engines  balked  somewhat 
because  of  the  violent  commotion  of  the  boat,  the 
low  temperature,  and  the  mud  of  the  cooling 
waters.  Two  were  kept  busy  at  the  engine,  and 
all  under  cover  were  miserably  seasick.  In  our 
desperation  we  tried  to  run  into  the  Beluga  River 
out  of  the  storm,  but  the  endless  low  flats  with 
mountains  of  sea  breaking  over  them  did  not  look 
inviting.  The  Chulitna,  another  river,  was  our 
next  hope,  but  as  we  allowed  the  wind  and  sea 
to  carry  us  into  the  bay  we  noticed  that  the  dan- 


i8o   TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

gers  were  even  greater  than  at  the  Beluga  River — 
seas  which  we  estimated  were  fifteen  feet  high 
rolled  under  us  and  broke  on  the  beaches  but  a 
few  hundred  feet  away.  One  went  over  us  and  for 
a  second  the  entire  boat  seemed  to  be  under  water. 
Some  one  exclaimed  at  this  moment,  "Beach 
her!"  but  since  flats  extended  five  miles  from 
shore,  with  a  blast  pitching  us  on  shore  and  a  sea 
breaking  everywhere,  we  were  not  in  a  beaching 
mood.  But  we  must  do  something  quickly. 
Tyonok  but  five  miles  south  was  to  us  as  impos- 
sible, with  the  onshore  wind  and  the  raging  sea, 
as  Chulitna.  To  cross  Cook  Inlet  to  the  windward 
shore  w^as  our  only  hope,  but  this  was  not  an 
agreeable  prospect.  The  night  with  its  awful 
storm  and  blackness  was  before  us.  With  men 
lashed  to  the  deck  who  might  be  swept  off,  and 
with  no  harbour  within  two  hundred  miles,  we 
thought  it  best  to  push  from  the  land  out  into  the 
night  and  into  the  gloom  of  the  continued  storm. 

The  wind  now  came  in  gusts,  but  with  a  force 
that  held  us  on  the  crests  of  sw^ells  as  the  engines 
were  pushed  to  do  their  best.  The  rise  and  fall 
of  the  launch  at  this  time  was  sickening.  Tum- 
bling from  the  seas  she  would  crack  as  if  she  had 
struck,  a  rock,  and  frequently  Prof.  Parker  said, 
"What  have  we  struck?" 

In  spite  of  our  efforts  to  cross  the  inlet  the 
strong  tides  carried  us  southward,  and  as  we 
neared  Tyonok  the  seas  became  choppy,  the  wind 
eased,  and  the  prospect  of  making  a  landing  seemed 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  i8i 

worth  trying.  We  pushed  under  a  spit,  dropped 
anchor,  lowered  our  little  fourteen-foot  canvas 
boat,  and  in  it  Browne  and  Printz  pushed  through 
the  breakers  into  the  river.  Mr.  Finch,  with  a 
crew  of  expert  Indian  boatmen  in  a  big  dory, 
came  and  took  us  off.  We  had  weathered  the 
worst  storm  of  the  season  in  the  north  country 
without  a  rudder  and  with  a  crippled  wheel!  It 
was  an  experience  w^hich  none  of  us  cared  to 
repeat,  but  it  was  a  fitting  addition  to  our  other 
hardships.  For  more  than  two  months  w^e  had 
been  in  icy  streams  and  drenched  by  cold  rains 
in  the  uplands.  Cold  water  was  ever  about  us 
whether  on  sea  or  land.  Indeed,  Prof.  Parker 
pronounced  the  effort  of  ascending  Mt.  McKinley 
a  marine  task. 

In  the  middle  of  August  there  were  various 
changes  made  in  the  personnel  of  the  expedition 
and  in  the  working  programme.  Prof.  Parker, 
unable  to  remain  longer  with  us  because  of  the 
necessity  of  his  returning  to  his  college  duties 
and  other  business  matters,  left  us.  The  projected 
trip  through  the  range  into  the  game  country 
along  the  western  slopes  was  abandoned  and 
various  parties  were  scattered  for  collecting  speci- 
mens of  animal  life  and  to  survey  new  dis- 
tricts. Owing  to  our  repeated  failures  and  the 
advancing  winter  we  decided  that  our  energies 
for  the  short  period  of  the  remaining  season  would 
be  better  spent  in  exploration  than  climbing,  and 
to  this  end  our  plans  were  now  made. 


1 82  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

x\t  this  critical  moment,  when  we  were  anxious 
to  get  to  work  quickly  to  carry  out  the  new 
plans,  the  Bolskoy  was  Hobsonized.  To  weather 
a  storm  she  was  taken  into  the  creek  behind 
T}'onok.  All  the  other  small  craft  of  the  Cook 
Inlet  fleet  followed,  and  finally  the  big  stern- 
wheeler  Caswell  ran  into  the  mouth  of  the  river 
and  went  aground.  The  tides  were  "nipping  off" 
and  we  were  thus  hopelessly  locked  in  the  river 
for  an  indefinite  time.  After  waiting  nearly  a  week 
we  took  our  boat  overland  and  prepared  to  push 
up  the  Susitna  to  continue  our  work. 


CHAPTER  IX 
Up  the  Susitna  and  Chulitna  by  Motor  Boat 

IN  DRAGGING  our  boat  overland  the  circulat- 
ing pump  was  broken  in  such  a  way  that  we 
could  not  fix  it.  Anticipating  such  an  accident 
we  had  provided  ourselves  with  an  extra  pump, 
but  to  adjust  this  we  were  compelled  to  take 
the  Bolshoy  to  the  machine  shop  of  the  Kaselif 
Salmon  Cannery.  Through  the  kindness  of  Mr. 
Witherbee  the  pump  was  fixed,  and  then  prep- 
arations were  made  for  the  final  trip  against  the 
easterly  torrents  of  Mt.  McKinley. 

Though  it  is  agreeable  to  come  out  of  the  wilder- 
ness of  the  interior  to  the  semi-civilisation  of  the 
coast  occasionally,  we  usually  found  the  coast 
environment  induced  ill-health  for  a  time. 

In  the  pursuit  of  our  routine  we  were  almost 
constantly  wet  with  ice- water.  For  two  months 
we  travelled  with  wet  feet.  In  rain  or  sunshine, 
in  wind  or  calm,  we  went  without  coats  for  the 
simple  reason  that  with  increased  clothing  we 
carried  more  water  and  therefore  were  less  com- 
fortable than  with  light  simple  garments  which 
would  dry  out  easily.  We  slept  in  dri}:)ping 
jungles,  on  floating  marshes,  in  wind-swept  clouds, 

183 


1 84  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

on  wet  snow,  and  in  perennial  frost,  always  with 
the  worst  element  about  us.  Surely  here  were 
conditions  to  cause  colds,  rheumatism,  pneumonia, 
and  all  kinds  of  winter  diseases,  but  we  never 
enjoyed  better  health.  No  colds,  no  rheumatism, 
and  no  sickness  of  any  consequence  was  reported. 
But  when  we  returned  to  the  outposts  of  civilisa- 
tion and  warm  dry  beds,  breathed  the  comfort  of 
good  shelter  in  luxury,  were  glutted  with  food 
and  prevented  from  taking  our  accustomed  exer- 
cise, we  promptly  suffered  from  headaches,  tooth- 
aches, colds,  tonsillitis,  neuralgia,  and  all  kinds  of 
physical  troubles. 

Our  immunity  from  disease  is  a  lesson  in  physi- 
ology worthy  of  more  minute  examination.  The 
real  cause  of  taking  cold  lies  in  the  balance  be- 
tween the  production  and  radiation  of  heat.  Like- 
wise the  real  cause  of  many  of  our  most  troublesome 
diseases,  like  headaches,  insomnia,  rheumatism, 
gout,  neuralgia,  and  many  minor  complaints  lies  in 
the  difference  between  the  process  of  assimilation 
of  nutritive  fluids  and  that  of  the  elimination  of 
waste  products.  With  an  active  life  like  ours  in  the 
wilderness  every  function  of  the  body  is  called  into 
service  and  there  is  soon  estabHshed  a  normal 
equilibrium  in  the  movement  of  cellular  construc- 
tion and  destruction.  Under  these  conditions  the 
processes  of  repair  and  waste  are  active  and 
new  cells  are  fitted  into  the  fabric  strained 
under  tension;  worn-out  tissues  are  removed,  and 
the  process  of  normal   health  proceeds  without 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  185 

interruption  because  of  a  compelled  rhythm  in 
all  of  the  usual  functions  of  Hfe. 

How  different  are  the  life-sapping  conditions 
of  modern  city  life.  Physical  exercise  is  pro- 
hibited by  the  limits  of  space  and  the  ease  of  me- 
chanical locomotion;  mental  energy  is  strained 
to  cope  with  the  maddening  pace  of  this  material 
age.  The  stomach  is  abused  by  unnatural  foods, 
the  liver  and  kidneys  are  hardened  by  poisonous 
drink,  the  lungs  breathe  a  hothouse,  germ-culti- 
vated air,  the  muscles  wither  from  disease,  the 
whole  splendid  cellular  organisation  is  disarranged 
in  an  endeavour  to  fit  man  into  an  artificial 
environment  for  which  animal  life  was  never 
intended.  The  misfits  result  noticeably  in  the 
breaking  down  of  some  important  department  of 
biologic  association,  and  disease  follows.  If  moun- 
taineering has  no  other  recompense  than  to  act 
as  a  means  to  arouse  dormant  functions  and  to 
establish  a  normal  balance  in  the  laboratory  of 
human  economy,  it  is  a  boon  to  mankind. 

Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  season  and  the  non- 
arrival  of  other  members  of  our  party,  we  now 
decided  to  abandon  the  projected  trip  into  the 
Kuskokwim  and  scatter  the  party  to  collect 
game  specimens  in  more  accessible  places,  and  to 
continue  the  work  of  exploration.  Browne  and 
Beecher  were  sent  into  the  mouth  of  the  Matanuska 
River  to  get  moose,  mountain  sheep,  and  goats. 
The  Bolshoy  pushing  up  the  Yentna  quickly 
reached  the  camp  at  Youngstown  on  August  28th. 


1 86  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

From  there  Printz  and  Miller  were  sent  into  the 
valley  of  the  Kichatna  with  five  horses,  also  to 
gather  game  specimens.  Four  horses  were  sent 
to  Porter  to  ease  his  task  of  transportation  and 
then,  taking  Barrille  and  Dokkin,  I  descended  the 
Yentna  to  the  Station  to  refit  for  the  next  stage 
of  the  work. 

As  a  final  task  for  our  season's  work  I  now 
determined  to  explore  the  river  systems  and 
glaciers  to  the  east  of  Mt.  McKinley,  and  to  ex- 
amine the  northern  arete  for  a  route  to  the  top 
of  the  mountain  for  a  possible  future  ascent. 

With  a  full  load  of  food  and  gasoline  the  Bolshoy 
was  pushed  up  the  Susitna.  The  upper  waters  had 
not  before  been  tried  by  a  motor  boat  and  the 
miners  doubted  the  ability  of  our  launch  to 
climb  the  rapids.  The  river  was  moderately  high, 
but  there  was  before  us  the  chance  that  the  early 
frosts  would  suddenly  stop  the  melting  glaciers 
from  sending  down  their  output  and  so  reduce 
the  rivers  that  we  would  be  unable  to  get  down 
stream. 

The  scenery  was  rapidly  changing  from  its 
run  of  dark  green  to  the  warm  colours  of 
autumnal  foliage.  Beyond  the  delightful  line  of 
birch  and  spruce  along  the  shore  the  eye  rested 
upon  a  wide  expanse  of  muskegs  cushioned  knee- 
deep  by  flufify  verdure  in  delicate  colours  of  green 
and  brown  pegged  down  with  buttons  of  cardi- 
nal. The  currants  and  the  cranberries  had  with- 
ered; the  bears  had  left  the  river  and  the  berries 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  187 

to  dig  out  the  fat  ground  rats  near  the  tops  of  the 
foothills;  the  beavers  and  rabbits  were  active; 
ptarmigan  were  descending  from  the  snowy  high- 
lands and  moose  and  caribou  tracks  were  seen  in 
the  silt  along  the  river.  Altogether  this  race  for 
time  against  the  tumbling  waters  and  the  ad- 
vancing winter  night  was  very  interesting. 

The  Susitna,  like  the  Yentna,  is  divided  into 
many  slews,  and  pours  its  brown  waters  over 
a  broad  expanse  in  great  graceful  curves,  but  it 
has  a  very  much  more  difficult  current  to  stem. 
The  average  mid-stream  current  is  about  seven  and 
one  half  miles  per  hour,  and  to  dodge  the  swift 
water  proved  a  great  task.  Perhaps  the  worst 
feature  of  the  Susitna  is  its  manner  of  spreading 
over  w4de  fiats  and  then  rushing  in  rifts  over  bars 
that  extend  across  the  river  without  a  deep  channel 
anywhere,  thus  offering  swift  and  very  shallow 
water,  which  is  extremely  difficult  for  a  power 
boat. 

We  ascended  the  first  sixty  miles  in  two  days 
without  any  great  trouble,  but  in  entering  the 
Chulitna  we  lost  a  day  because  of  the  shallow 
water.  Trying  one  slew  after  another,  we  were 
stopped  in  each  as  we  were  about  to  push  into 
the  main  stream.  Finally  we  took  the  most 
westerly  channel  and  lined  the  boat  for  a  few 
miles,  dragging  her  over  bars  when  necessary 
by  placing  an  anchor  out  and  pulling  in  the  rope 
by  the  capstan.  About  ten  miles  above  the  forks 
the  Chulitna  narrows  to  one  dcej),  swift  channel 


1 88  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

where  low  rolling  hills  lead  to  a  plateau  through 
which  the  river  has  cut  a  narrow  channel  with 
canyons  three  hundred  feet  high. 

The  scenery  in  the  lower  river  is  rather  tame. 
The  valley  is  wide  and  the  trees  along  the  river 
prevent  a  view  of  the  great  spread  of  the  Susitna 
lowlands,  but  now  we  have  risen  in  altitude  con- 
siderably and  are  able  to  look  over  the  lower 
valley  to  the  snow-streaked  Chugach  Mountains. 
Ahead  the  foothills  close  in  on  the  stream  and  in 
the  occasional  clearing  the  big  peaks  of  the  Bol- 
shoy  group  are  visible.  The  rock  of  the  canyon 
appears  to  be  grey  wacke.  Above  the  canyon, 
which  is  about  five  miles  long,  the  river  spreads 
out,  and  as  it  nears  the  Tokositna  it  turns  ab- 
ruptly to  receive  its  waters. 

Pushing  the  launch  up  the  Tokositna  to  the 
first  stream  from  Ruth  Glacier  a  camp  was  made 
within  easy  reach  of  the  terminal  moraine.  We 
had  gone  about  half  way  through  the  boiling 
rapids.  The  big  boulders  here  indicate  that  Ruth 
Glacier  at  one  time  extended  at  least  four  miles 
beyond  its  present  moraine.  The  river  above 
would  have  been  navigable  by  lining  for  a  few 
hundred  feet,  and  beyond  the  waters  seemed  to 
be  deep  and  easy  for  about  twenty  miles  farther. 
Preparations  were  made  to  stay  here  for  several 
weeks.  Barrille  built  a  crude  pier  for  the  boat, 
of  drift  logs  weighted  down  with  boulders.  This 
was  necessary  because  of  the  sudden  rise  and  fall 
of  the  glacial  waters,  also  because  of  the  swell 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  189 

produced  by  the  rapids.  Dokkin  was  so  fasci- 
nated by  the  place  that  he  prepared  to  winter, 
intending  to  start  mining  operations  there  in  the 
spring. 


CHAPTER  X 

Discover  a  Way  to  Reach  the  Summit  of  Mt. 
McKiNLEY. — ^Preparations  for  the  Climb 

AFTER  a  preliminary  examination  we  were 
convinced  that  our  position  was  a  very 
fortunate  one.  The  limits  of  navigation  had  not 
been  reached  on  either  river,  but  for  our  purposes 
it  was  not  desirable  to  push  the  launch  farther. 
Within  three  miles  of  our  landing  was  seen  the 
end  of  Ruth  Glacier,  and  through  its  gap  we  were 
able  to  make  out  a  line  of  attack  to  the  north 
shoulder  of  Mt.  McKinley,  from  which  we  now 
discovered  a  way  to  reach  the  summit  of  that 
mountain. 

With  the  Bolskoy  safely  harboured  we  began  to 
establish  a  base  camp.  The  surroundings  here 
were  agreeable:  To  the  east,  but  a  few  miles 
distant,  were  the  bold  uplands  and  the  wooded 
lowlands  of  the  Chulitna  and  Susitna  valleys; 
to  the  west  the  new  gold  country,  the  foothills 
of  the  Alaska  Range  in  which  we  had  left  our 
topographer;  to  the  northwest,  forty  miles  away, 
far  above  the  clouds,  the  summit  of  Mt.  McKinley, 
the  Top  of  the  Continent,  the  Ultima  Thule  of  our 
ambition. 

190 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  191 

In  going  up  the  Chulitna  we  noted  carefully 
every  snow-slope  of  the  big  mountain.  We  had 
already  changed  our  minds  as  to  the  impossibil- 
ity of  climbing  the  mountain.  Three  promising 
routes  were  carefully  plotted  in  our  note-books, 
with  all  possible  landmarks.  We  aimed  to  tabu- 
late these  routes  at  long  range  so  thoroughly  that 
if  we  were  caught  in  a  storm  while  climbing  we 
could  still  travel  by  this  previously  noted  line 
of  landmarks. 

The  weather  during  the  entire  summer  had  been 
the  worst  ever  noted  along  the  eastern  side  of  the 
range.  Continuous  cold  drizzling  rains  made  the 
work  of  exploration  and  climbing  nearly  impos- 
sible, but  now  there  was  a  radical  change:  the 
thermometer  fell  to  near  the  freezing  point  in  the 
lowlands,  and  above  two  thousand  feet  the  winter 
snows  were  beginning  to  accumulate.  There  was 
a  dryness  and  briskness  to  the  air  which  aroused 
anew  our  ambitions  to  climb  Mt.  McKinley. 

Our  intentions,  however,  were  not  to  climb  to 
the  top.  The  winter,  with  its  heavy  snowfall,  its 
death-dealing  avalanches,  its  storms  and  aw^ul 
cold,  was  too  far  advanced  in  the  upper  world. 
We  hoped  only  for  an  opportunity  to  discover  a 
route  that  would  permit  a  future  ascent  and  to 
explore  the  big  glaciers  starting  from  the  north- 
erly slopes,  and  to  this  end  we  prepared  our 
equipment. 

The  conquest  of  a  mountain  of  this  size  so  near 
the    arctic    circle    required    more    than    ortlinary 


192  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

preparation.  We  had  no  guides  and  no  porters, 
and  no  camp  followers  to  take  from  our  shoulders 
the  usual  hardships  of  alpine  ascents.  The 
very  great  difficulty  in  moving  supplies  to  the 
base  of  the  mountain  prohibited  such  assistance. 
In  preparing  our  equipment  I  had  determined 
to  break  away  from  the  established  method  of 
mountain  climbing  by  reducing  the  number  of  my 
party  and  by  changing  the  working  equipment. 
The  work  in  prospect  as  we  had  originally  planned 
it  required  not  days,  but  weeks  and  perhaps  months, 
during  which  we  must  sleep  on  storm-swept 
snow-fields,  and  for  the  prolonged  siege  we  must 
carry  food,  fuel,  and  shelter  on  our  backs.  With 
blankets,  heavy  tents,  and  tinned  food  such  a 
project  would  be  impossible.  To  meet  the  need 
of  reduced  weights  and  increased  efficiency  I  had 
invented  a  new  silk  tent  which  weighed  but  three 
pounds,  was  large  enough  for  three  men,  and  re- 
quired no  pole. 

That  we  might  be  able  to  sleep  on  ice  in  low 
temperatures  Mrs.  Cook  had  made  for  us  three 
novel  sleeping-bags  which  were  a  great  success. 
With  a  woman's  ingenuity  three  robes  were  made 
in  such  a  way  that  they  could  be  buttoned  to- 
gether and  hooked  up  along  the  edge,  making  a 
sleeping-bag.  However,  it  was  not  only  a  sleeping- 
bag  but  an  overcoat  besides.  The  outer  section 
was  made  of  cravenette,  the  inner  section  of 
camel's  hair  blanketing,  and  the  middle  section  of 
the  skins  of  eider  duck  covered  both  sides  with 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  193 

Shantung  silk.  These  robes  could  be  used  sepa- 
rately or  together  as  ponchos,  and  with  belts  they 
made  a  perfect  garment.  We  carried  no  coats  or 
waistcoats.  The  sleeping-robes  furnished  us  all 
the  protection  that  we  needed. 

We  did  no  relay  work  or  double-tripping.  We 
moved  no  heavy  tents  nor  other  cumbersome 
equipment.  Rapid  marches,  light  packs,  and 
but  the  prime  necessities  of  camp  life  were  to  be 
our  method  of  action.  We  aimed  to  carry  on  our 
backs  about  forty-five  pounds  each,  and  this  pack 
was  to  contain  all  our  needs  for  ten  days.  We 
were  thus  independent  of  each  other  and  inde- 
pendent of  a  base  camp  or  a  supporting  party. 

We  spent  a  day  in  the  preparation  of  this  pack. 
Our  clothing  needed  some  mending,  and  to  bake 
the  right  kind  of  bread  required  a  good  deal  of 
study.  Crackers  and  all  kinds  of  factory-made 
biscuits  are  in  my  judgment  not  only  troublesome 
to  transport,  but  their  nutritive  value  is  decid- 
edly inferior  to  properly  made  bread.  In  the  first 
attempt  we  were  forced  to  invent  some  kind  of 
mountain  bread,  and  we  then  tried  to  imitate 
zweibach,  w^hich  proved  very  good.  In  the 
preparation  of  any  food  for  a  high  altitude  one 
has  always  to  keep  in  mind  that  such  food  should 
not  require  cooking  nor  should  it  contain  a  parti- 
cle of  moisture.  Ordinary  bread  would  freeze  so 
hard  that  it  would  require  hours  to  thaw  it  out, 
consuming  precious  fuel  which  must  be  carried 
on  the  back.    Our  experiment  here  resulted  in  the 


194  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

invention  of  a  biscuit  which  I  would  recommend 
for  any  work  where  the  temperature  is  low  and 
fuel  scarce.  We  mixed  the  dough  in  the  usual 
way  with  baking-powder  but  omitted  shortening. 
This  dough  was  divided  into  little  bits  not  larger 
than  a  good-sized  marble  and  baked  in  the  re- 
flector by  a  hot  fire  until  quite  brown,  then  the 
reflector  was  moved  farther  from  the  fire  and  by 
slow  heat  the  biscuits  were  dried  and  hardened. 
No  grease  was  put  in  the  pan  nor  in  the 
dough 

Distributed  as  expedition  baggage  we  carried  a 
silk  tent,  rubber  floor-cloth,  tent  pegs,  three 
aneroids,  barometers,  two  thermometers,  one  pris- 
matic compass,  a  watch,  and  a  5  x  7  camera  with 
six  film  packs,  the  total  weight  of  which  was 
twelve  pounds.  This  was  distributed  among  the 
different  packs. 

The  luggage  which  fell  to  each  as  common 
baggage  was : 

Food.  .  .  „  „. twenty-one  pounds 

Fuel , .two  pounds 

Sleeping  bag five  and  one  half  pounds 

Sleeping  stockings. .  .  .  eight  ounces 

Alcohol  stove two  ounces 

Aluminum  pail,  cup, 

spoon,  and  pocket 

knife four  ounces 

Horsehair  rope one  pound 

Ice  axe three  and  one  half  pounds 

Rucksack three  pounds 

Expedition  baggage .  .  four  pounds 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  195 

Thus  the  total  weight  for  each  cUmber  to  carry 
was  somewhat  over  forty  pounds.  We  carried  no 
extra  clothing  except  one  pair  of  sleeping  socks. 
As  we  left  the  boat  we  wore  medium- weight  suits 
of  woollen  underwear,  heavy  flannel  shirts,  short 
trousers,  puttees,  four  pairs  woollen  socks,  shoe 
packs,  and  a  felt  hat. 

We  had  underestimated  the  arctic  effects  of  even 
the  low  altitudes  and  had  not  our  bags  been  made 
in  sections  which,  as  ponchos,  furnished  a  splendid 
protection  against  the  awful  cold  above,  we  could 
never  have  been  able  to  begin  the  climb. 

With  all  these  things  snugly  packed  in  our 
rucksacks  we  started  from  the  Bolshoy  where  the 
altitude  was  1000  feet,  on  the  morning  of  the  8th 
of  September.  It  was  a  bright  clear  day  with 
the  temperature  near  the  freezing  point.  But  a 
few  hundred  feet  from  camp  we  saw  fresh  moose 
and  bear  tracks.  We  followed  these  tracks  a 
short  distance,  and  then  discovered  a  blazed 
trail  cut  by  the  gold  seekers.  This  trail  led  to 
Ruth  Glacier,  and  after  crossing  several  icy  streams 
in  which  we  got  wet  above  our  waists  we  found 
to  the  north  side  of  the  glacier  an  old  caribou 
trail  where  travelling  was  excellent. 

As  we  followed  these  game  trails  a  sharp  wind 
was  blowing  and  the  air  had  a  touch  of  winter 
bitterness  in  it.  The  great  chasm  out  of  which 
the  glacier  poured  its  frozen  product  was  roofed 
by  masses  of  dark  gray  clouds  ranked  closely  and 
hurrying    swiftly.     The    curious    tunnel    between 


196  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

cloud  and  glacier,  through  which  we  saw  snowy 
peaks,  was  weird  and  gloomy  but  our  attention 
was  fixed  upon  it  for  it  was  the  track  of  our  future 
efforts. 

On  the  evening  of  the  second  day  we  took 
to  the  ice,  crossed  the  first  northerly  tributary, 
and  camped  on  a  beautiful  moss-carpeted  point 
about  fifteen  miles  from  Mt.  McKinley. 

As  we  crossed  the  glacier  and  jumped  the 
crevasses  Dokkin  developed  quite  a  fear  of  the 
bottomless  pits  and  said  that  he  would  prefer 
not  to  trust  his  life  to  the  security  of  his  footing. 
Barrille  and  I  had  been  on  glaciers  before  and  did 
not  entertain  the  same  fear.  Indeed  w^e  regarded 
this  glacier  as  one  particularly  free  of  danger  and 
hardship.  Its  surface  was  unusually  smooth.  We 
had  about  determined  that  the  limit  of  our  effort 
would  be  the  top  of  the  north  arete  at  12,000  feet; 
from  there  we  believed  that  we  could  thoroughly 
outline  the  glacier  drainage  and  also  a  route  up 
the  mountain.  For  this  purpose  Dokkin  was  not 
needed,  and  since  he  wished  to  prospect  for  gold 
in  the  lowlands  I  sent  him  back  with  instructions 
to  read  the  base  barometer  and  to  place  emergency 
caches  along  the  glacier. 

The  snow  on  the  glacier  was  hard  and  offered  a 
splendid  surface  for  a  rapid  march  but  the  advan- 
tage of  its  hardness  was  offset  by  the  treacherous 
manner  in  which  it  bridged  dangerous  crevasses. 
As  we  advanced  these  snow  bridges  increased  and 
we  held  to  our  horsehair  rope  with  more  interest. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  197 

As  the  sun  settled  behind  Mt.  McKinley  and 
threw  a  shivering  blue  over  the  mammoth  glacial 
canyons  about  us  the  tent  was  pegged  down 
on  the  mossy  shelf.  Here  our  eyes  first  danced 
to  the  dazzling  glows  and  the  wild  notes  of  enchant- 
ment and  despair  of  a  snowy  cloud  world.  We 
were  making  discoveries  in  every  direction.  The 
gates  of  a  new  world  of  arctic  splendour  had 
opened.  In  line  with  the  magnetic  needle  the 
glacier  continued  with  graceful  curves  and  like 
a  thing  of  life,  its  arms  reaching  up  to  the  east- 
erly outline  of  the  great  monarch  of  mountains. 
To  the  west  of  this  snowy  bosom  of  ice  our  anxious 
eyes  ran  from  peak  to  peak  of  wondrous  mountains 
entombed  by  gauzy  films  of  gold.  With  utter 
amazement  we  counted  twelve  cone-shape  peaks 
in  an  air  line  all  1 2,000  feet  high,  the  last  a  pinnacle 
in  the  huge  northern  arete  making  a  barrier  to 
the  conquest  of  Mt.  McKinley.  To  the  east  of 
this  wonderful  line  of  frosted  and  polished  cones 
there  was  another  row  of  less  regular  but  sharper 
peaks  with  sheer  walls  of  yellow  granite  down 
which  avalanches  plunged  for  5000  feet  without 
a  shelf. 

The  scene  changed  every  minute,  clouds  came 
and  went  swiftly.  The  blue  changed  to  purple, 
the  purple  to  lilac,  and  at  last  a  l)lack  veil  of 
sadness  dropped  over  this  new  world  of  arctic 
evanescence. 

With  this  peep  into  the  frosty  splendour  of 
our  future  camping  environment  we  knew  tliat 


1 98  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

at  this  camp  we  would  leave  behind  the  last 
traces  of  life,  for  in  the  icy  altitudes  above  neither 
plant  nor  animal  life  could  subsist.  We  were 
eager  to  celebrate  this  departure  from  life  by  a 
feast  with  the  greatest  possible  comfort,  for 
feasts  and  comforts  as  we  imderstood  them  would 
be  impossible  in  the  upper  world ! 

Under  the  silk  tent  was  a  soft  carpet  of  moss 
in  delicate  shades  of  brown  and  green  and  red. 
From  this  moss  we  were  able  to  make  a  cheerful 
fire  and  thus  save  the  precious  alcohol  which 
we  had  carried  thirty  miles  for  a  fire  higher  up. 
Among  the  lichens  of  the  upper  rocks  we  heard  the 
shrieks  of  numerous  ptarmigan.  After  some  deli- 
cate manoeuvres  that  would  do  credit  to  a  mount- 
ain goat,  Barrille  secured  five  of  these  with  his 
rifle.  To  make  the  birds  palatable  proved  to 
be  a  task  more  difficult  than  the  hunt.  With  wet 
moss  we  could  not  get  fire  enough  to  broil  the  birds. 
To  cut  them  and  make  a  kind  of  soup  was  our 
only  resource  but  we  had  no  salt  and  no  flavouring 
material,  and  the  thought  of  a  parboiled  bird 
without  salt  was  not  pleasant.  We  filled  the 
aluminum  pail  with  snow,  cut  the  meat  in  small 
strips,  and  as  the  snow  melted  w^e  tossed  in  the 
meat.  After  boiling  for  about  an  hour  and  a  half, 
Barrille  tasted  the  meat  and  said  it  tasted  like 
oysters  without  lemon.  I  tasted  the  soup  and  it 
was  impossible.  We  had  carefully  eliminated 
salt  from  our  food  because  of  its  tendency  to 
produce  thirst.     Barrille  put  in  some  pemmican 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  199 

which  gave  it  a  sickening  sweet  flavour.  I  added 
some  crumbs  of  bread  which  helped  a  Httle. 
Finally  Barrille  said,  "  Let 's  put  in  the  mixture 
some  sugar  and  tea  and  our  feast  will  be  complete 
and  it  will  save  us  the  wait  for  the  tea  after." 
I  yielded  to  the  sugar  and  tried  it,  and  to  our  great 
surprise  this  seemingly  impossible  mixture  passed 
our  palates  without  protest.  A  sweet  soup  with 
sugared  meat,  what  joys  it  brought  us!  But 
we  never  repeated  the  experiment. 

The  night  was  dark  and  gloomy.  There  was  an 
occasional  fall  of  snow  from  the  low  clouds  sweep- 
ing along  the  surface  of  the  glacier.  From  a  long 
distance  there  came  low-pitched  rumbling  noises 
like  that  of  a  farm  waggon  over  a  rocky  road.  These 
were  the  premonitory  warnings  of  the  avalanches. 
Sharp  winds  were  piping  frosty  notes  through 
granite  crevasses  but  in  our  silk  tent  and  buttoned 
in  our  eiderdown  bags  with  stomachs  full  of  sweet 
soup  and  sugared  ptarmigan,  we  were  serenely 
happy. 

Dawn  came  with  a  weird  blue  glow  from  the  west. 
The  high  frosted  foothills  to  the  east  brightened 
and  warmed  to  an  orange  tint  but  there  was  a 
long  arctic  twilight  with  an  oppressive  stillness 
interrupted  by  sharp  explosive  noises  due  to  the 
movement  of  the  glacial  stream.  In  this  twilight 
we  saw  the  stars  through  the  silk  mesh  of  the  tent 
as  clearly  as  at  night  in  lower  lands.  The  outlines 
of  the  mountains  were  also  clearly  seen  tlirougli 
the    tent    while   we   were    resting   comfortabh\ 


2  00  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

As  we  turned  out  of  the  tent  the  glacier  and 
the  mountains  toward  the  Chulitna  were  for  a 
short  time  free  from  the  usual  drift  of  clouds.  The 
great  tongue  of  ice  descended  four  thousand  feet 
in  about  thirty  miles.  The  lower  ten  miles  of  the 
ice  was  completely  covered  by  a  thick  spread 
of  finely  broken  granite  and  slate  thrown  up  in 
huge  hummocks.  There  were  curious  lines  of 
moraine  running  in  parallel  courses  above.  The 
striking  differences  in  colour  of  these  rock  streams 
distinguishes  this  glacier  from  all  others.  The 
black  of  the  slate,  the  buff  of  the  granite,  and  the 
blue  of  the  ice  made  a  run  of  attractive,  contrast- 
ing streams. 

The  Tokositna  mountains  with  their  sharp 
spires  stood  out  in  bold  relief  against  a  bunch 
of  vapours  moving  hurriedly  into  the  glacial  cut. 
The  wind  on  the  glacier  was  westerly  but  these 
clouds  moved  in  the  opposite  direction,  indicating 
a  contrary  upper  drift  of  air  currents  which 
explained  the  usual  cloudiness. 

We  made  an  early  start  over  the  moss  to  the 
mountains  of  lateral  moraine.  Climbing  the  big 
boulders  we  studied  the  seracs  through  which  our 
course  forced  us.  The  ice  in  the  dim  morning 
light  looked  enticing  from  a  pictiiresque  stand- 
point; great  blue  crevasses  crossed  the  glacier  and 
huge  points  of  ice  rose  like  the  pinnacles  of  the 
polar  pack.  We  enjoyed  the  scene  but  as  a  high- 
way the  outlook  was  discouraging.  The  hair 
rope  was  securely  fastened  about  our  w^aists  and 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  201 

then  we  descended  into  the  widest  of  the  crevasses, 
picking  our  way  in  the  blue  depths  below  across 
the  glacier.  Rising  out  of  this  frigid  gap  to  the 
main  surface  of  the  ice  we  found  the  snow  hard 
and  a  fairly  clear  spread  of  ice  for  miles  ahead. 
The  crevasses  were  still  numerous;  those  visible 
were  easily  evaded,  but  those  invisible  were  at 
times  unintentionally  located  by  breaking  through 
snow  bridges.  Big  cumulus  clouds  pressed 
against  the  southern  slopes  of  the  twelve  peaks, 
but  the  narrow  sky  of  the  big  blue  canyon  into 
which  we  were  pushing  was  perfectly  clear.  A 
strong  wind  rolled  from  off  the  ice  of  the  great 
mountain  and  it  pierced  us  like  the  blast  of  an  arctic 
winter.  It  was  not  until  noon  that  the  sun  broke 
through  the  narrow  gaps  of  sky-piercing  foothills 
and  then  we  changed  our  course  to  the  north 
side  of  the  glacier.  The  awful  frost  of  the  dense 
blue  shadows  combined  with  the  icy  head  wind 
made  advance  rather  difficult.  The  bright  burn- 
ing sunbeams  falling  on  the  glittering  snow  of  the 
other  side  of  the  glacier  were  equally  tmcomfort- 
able,  for  now  there  fell  from  our  faces  big  beads  of 
perspiration,  which  froze  in  icy  pinnacles  on  our 
garments. 

Because  of  the  splendid  progress  made  we  al- 
lowed ourselves  the  luxury  of  a  mid-day  lunch. 
We  tried  to  set  up  our  alcohol  lani])  in  a  big  grotto, 
but  deflected  currents  of  air  so  blew  the  blue  flame 
that  the  heat  was  lost.  The  tent  was  set  uj)  and 
in  it  we  brewed  a  pot  of  tea,  ate  pemmican  and 


202  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

biscuits,  and  rested  for  two  hours,  and  then  as  the 
sun  sank  behind  the  big  chffs  of  the  main  mountain 
we  took  up  the  march  again  into  the  frosty 
shadows.  Before  dark  we  pitched  the  tent  on  the 
glacier  at  an  altitude  of  8000  feet  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  northern  ridge,  the  summit  of  which, 
4000  feet  above,  was  at  this  time  our  ultimate 
destination. 


Camelshair  blanket 

Eiderdown  adhering 
to  the  skin,  covered 
with  silk 


Copyright,  1007,  by 
Harper  and  BrothtrB 


CHAPTER  XI 

To  THE  North-East  Ridge. — in  a  Snow  House 
AT  12,000  Feet 

FROM  here  the  stupendous  wonder  aroused 
by  the  titanic  upHft  sent  a  thrill  of  amaze- 
ment over  us  which  carried  its  note  of  fear  and 
admiration  for  many  days. 

Just  as  Mt.  Tacoma  surpasses  all  other  American 
mountains  in  quiet  softened  grandeur,  so  Mt. 
McKinley  transcends  in  savage  magnificence  and 
in  colossal  proportions  all  mountains  of  the 
world.  While  there  are  other  mountains  greater 
in  altitude,  still  these  are  a  part  of  a  general  eleva- 
tion, and  as  individual  peaks  the  great  mountains 
of  the  world  are  less  attractive. 

There  are  mountains  where  the  blend  of  colour, 
the  scale  of  dripping  waters,  the  waves  of  balmy 
breezes  run  to  music  and  poetry  and  quiet  aesthetic 
inspirations,  but  there  is  no  such  play  on  the  senses 
here.  Mt.  McKinley  is  one  of  the  severest  battle- 
grounds of  nature,  and  warfare  is  im]:)ressed  with 
every  look  at  its  thundering  immensity.  TIic 
avalanches  fire  a  thousand  cannons  every  minute 
and  the  perpetual  roar  echoes  and  rc-cchocs 
from    a    hundred    cliffs.     Tlie    pounding    of    the 

203 


204  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

massive  blocks  from  ledge  to  ledge  in  their  mad 
descent  makes  the  whole  mountain  world  quiver 
with  battle  spirit. 

We  had  every  reason  to  be  pleased  with  our 
rapid  progress  to  this  camp.  In  three  days  we 
pushed  thirty-five  miles  into  the  foothills  of  an 
unexplored  country  and  were  now  in  a  better 
position  to  attack  the  mountain  than  at  any 
previous  time  during  a  siege  of  three  months. 

The  main  glacier  here  narrowed  and  turned 
sharply  to  the  south-east,  sweeping  the  whole  east- 
ern slope  of  Mt.  McKinley.  Feeders  pulled  the 
snows  out  of  numerous  amphitheatres  and  the  main 
tributary  sent  prongs  on  to  the  great  north-east 
arete.  Indeed  the  gathering  basins  of  the  glacier 
were  arranged  like  the  leaves  of  a  tree  and  huge 
limbs  connected  them  with  the  parent  mass  of  ice, 
completing  the  circulatory  system  from  cloud  to 
sea. 

We  realised  the  serious  aspect  of  our  next 
ascent  into  a  region  of  cloud  and  storm,  but  we  were 
now  prepared  for  all  contingencies.  We  had 
seen  the  great  mountain  from  every  possible  side 
during  our  various  campaigns.  Along  the  west 
we  had  followed  the  face  of  the  mountain  for 
twenty-five  miles.  Along  the  east  we  had  circled 
the  base  close  enough  to  study  carefully  the  giant 
slopes.  Every  glacier,  every  pinnacle,  everything 
that  could  possibly  be  seen  as  a  landmark  or  a  route 
had  been  carefully  charted.  We  knew  that  we 
could  not  possibly  carry  into  the  clouds  a  sufficient 


Copyright,  1907,  by  Harper  and  Brothers 

IN  THE  SOLITUDE  OF  THE  CLOUD  WORLD 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  205 

supply  to  permit  of  halts  during  storms.  We  must 
make  progress  and  climb  every  day.  Cloud 
obscurity  or  storms  must  not  delay  us  and  to  be 
able  to  be  thus  independent  of  weather  we  must 
always  know  exactly  where  we  were  and  know 
also  the  workable  route  and  the  dangers  above 
and  below.  These  points  were  splendidly  met 
by  our  arctic  equipment  and  our  rapid  sketch 
maps  of  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  from  every 
point  of  view. 

The  death-dealing  spirit  of  the  avalanches 
created  more  anxiety  here  than  at  any  other 
camp,  though  we  never  failed  to  note  this  danger. 
The  night  was  dark  and  we  were  restless  like 
soldiers  on  the  eve  of  a  battle.  Snugly  wrapped 
in  our  bags  we  rested  well,  but  slept  little  because 
of  the  violent  thunder  of  avalanches  and  the  angry 
rush  of  winds.  Out  of  black  clouds  from  the 
invisible  upper  world  there  rushed  with  the  noise 
of  a  thousand  cannons  and  the  hiss  of  a  burning 
volcano  indescribable  quantities  of  rock  and  ice 
mixed  with  snow  and  wind.  The  tumble  from 
cliff  to  cliff,  from  glacier  to  glacier  down  the 
seemingly  endless  fall  was  soul-stirring  to  the 
verge  of  desperation.  The  glacier  under  us  cracked, 
the  whole  earth  about  quivered  as  from  an  earth- 
quake, and  as  we  tossed  about  in  our  bags  the  snow 
squeaked  with  a  metallic  ring.  That  third  niglit 
we  felt  as  if  we  were  at  the  gates  of  Hades.  We 
were  about  ready  to  cjuit  and  seek  a  more  con- 
genial   calHng.      But    dawn    brought    its    usual 


2o6  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

inspiration.  The  temperature  fell  to  zero,  a  heavy 
fall  of  snow  cleared  the  gloom  out  of  the  sky,  and 
a  bright  orange  glow  softened  the  depressing 
chaos  of  cliffs  and  spires  into  a  sheen  of  sparkling 
splendour.  While  in  our  bags  breakfast  was 
prepared  and  eaten,  and  as  the  sun  broke  through 
the  granite  gap  we  tumbled  out,  rolled  up  our 
bags  and  tents,  packed  all  in  our  rucksacks,  secured 
the  life  line  to  our  waists,  and  with  axes  in  hand 
we  started  over  the  fresh  snow  for  the  cliffs  of  the 
northern  arete. 

The  gaps  of  the  crevasses  widened,  and  the  ice 
became  more  irregular,  but  the  snow  improved 
as  we  advanced.  We  chose  the  lateral  moraine 
of  the  serac  of  the  first  glacial  tributary  as  a  route 
into  an  amphitheatre.  Here  we  found  ourselves 
rising  into  the  breath  of  avalanches  too  numerous 
and  too  close  for  our  sense  of  security,  but  there 
were  no  other  lines  of  ascent,  so  we  pushed  on 
into  the  gathering  basin  and  into  the  clouds. 
The  sunlight  and  snowy  brightness  were  soon 
obscured  by  a  curious  gray-blue  mist.  The 
frosty  chill  of  blue  shadows  and  also  the  warm  glow 
of 'sunbeams  were  absent  and  in  their  place  a  humid 
chill  which  is  the  usual  effect  of  the  cloud-world. 
With  an  eye  on  some  rock  we  picked  our  way 
through  mists,  over  dangerous  seracs,  to  the  frown- 
ing cliffs  that  made  the  circular  rim  of  the 
amphitheatre.  Here  at  noon  we  dropped  in  the 
snow,  ate  some  pemmican,  and  rested  long  enough  to 
permit  the  clouds  to  part  and  give  us  a  peep  at  the 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  207 

cliffs  above.  We  were  thirsty,  but  it  would  take 
more  than  an  hour  to  melt  snow,  and  this  delay 
we  could  not  afford  at  this  time.  There  was  no 
place  to  camp  in  the  regions  above  unless  we 
reached  the  top  of  the  ridge  and  we  still  had  about 
two  thousand  feet  of  step  cutting  and  unknown 
trouble  above  us  to  a  possible  resting  place. 
We  rose  farther  and  farther  into  the  ragged  edge 
of  quickly  drifting  clouds.  Rising  from  ridge  to 
ridge  and  from  cornice  to  cornice  we  finally  burst 
through  the  gloomy  mist  on  to  a  bright  snow- 
field  upon  which  fell  the  parting  glow  of  the  sun 
settling  into  the  great  green  expanse  beyond  the 
Yukon.  We  were  on  the  divide,  the  wall  between 
the  Yukon  and  Susitna. 

It  did  not  take  us  long  to  discover  that  we  were 
on  the  battle-ground  and  in  the  firing  line  of 
clouds  from  the  tropic  and  the  arctic.  The  winds 
came  in  gusts  now  from  the  east  and  then  from 
the  west ;  with  each  change  there  was  a  fall  of  snow 
and  a  rush  of  drift.  This  locality  did  not  appeal 
to  us  as  a  camping  ground.  In  seeking  for  a  shel- 
tered nook  we  found  a  place  where  the  snow  was 
hard  enough  to  cut  blocks  with  which  to  build 
a  snow  house.  In  less  than  two  hours  our  dome- 
shaped  Eskimo  igloo  was  completed  and  thereby 
shelter  and  comfort  were  assured  us  for  the  time  of 
our  stay  on  the  ridge. 

The  ice  axes  were  driven  into  the  snow,  a  ro]X3 
was  stretched,  and  on  this  line  we  hung  our  wet 
stockings  and  puttees.    We  had  previously  learned 


2o8  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

that  the  best  way  to  dry  things  out  was  to  allow 
them  to  freeze  and  on  the  following  morning  to 
shake  off  the  frozen  moisture.  Everything  else 
was  taken  inside  the  snow  walls  and  a  block  of 
snow  was  pulled  in  as  a  door. 

In  the  snow  dome  we  were  splendidly  housed 
from  the  wind  and  drifting  snows.  Even  the 
deafening  rush  of  the  avalanches  was  muffled. 
The  temperature  outside  was  below  zero  but  we 
were  perfectly  comfortable  within.  Thin  sheets  of 
rubber  were  spread  on  the  floor  first,  the  silk  tent 
and  all  our  outer  clothing  were  next  put  down.  The 
sleeping  bags  were  placed  on  this  and  into  them 
we  crept  with  the  confidence  of  enjoying  a  warm 
restful  night.  Our  shoes  and  cameras  and  other 
bulky  things  were  rolled  up  in  our  rucksacks  and 
used  as  pillows.  This  done  the  snow  camp  was 
complete. 

For  the  culinary  process  Barrille  packed  the 
aluminum  pail  with  fine  snow  while  I  filled  the 
lamp  with  wood  alcohol.  Soon  the  happy  buzz 
of  the  numerous  blue  jets  lowered  the  snow  line 
and  more  snow  was  added.  During  this  time  we 
rested  comfortably  in  our  bags  and  braced  our 
teeth  to  the  hard  fragments  of  tallow  and  dried 
beef.  We  had  a  sickening  empty  feeling  and 
ravenous  appetites  and  felt  like  spending  the  night 
in  filling  up.  We  were  not  at  all  particular  as 
to  the  menu.  I  have  heard  mountain  climbers 
speak  of  the  difficulties  of  digestion;  this  was  not 
one  of  our  complaints,  anything  to  fill  the  gap 


^.t 


INTO   THK   nRKATH   OF  DFATH-nEALINr,   AVAI,ANCHI-:S 
PickinK  stci)s  over  treacherous  ire  ami  snow,  nroun.l  i-.li-.hr.l 
spires  up  and  up  to  the  heavcnH«:r«pcd  gran.lc  o(  the  top 


Co[)yri;;ht,  J907,  by  Harper  and  Brothers 

ON  THE  BRINK  OF  AN  ARCTIC  INFERNO,  14.0u0  FEET 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  209 

would  have  been  appreciated.  Fortunately  pem- 
mican  changes  a  hungry  man's  mind  very  quickly, 
and  this  with  tea  and  biscuits  raised  an  atmos- 
phere of  contentment  which  could  not  have  been 
equalled  by  a  course  dinner.  We  lived  a  simple 
life  indeed. 

Little  streams  of  snow  drifted  through  the  cuts 
between  the  blocks  that  night,  but  we  rolled  over 
now  and  then,  shook  the  snow  from  the  flap  about 
our  faces,  and  renewed  our  slumber  with  even 
increasing  joys.  At  the  end  of  twelve  hours  we 
woke  up  with  a  gastric  emptiness  which  called 
for  immediate  attention. 

As  we  crawled  out  of  the  snow  house  we  noted 
to  our  surprise  that  the  clouds  below  had  separated 
and  were  drifting  northerly,  leaving  unveiled  the 
unexplored  mountains  and  glaciers,  the  study 
of  which  completed  our  main  mission. 

Here  to  the  east  we  noted  the  burial  place  of  a 
great  system  of  clouds  which,  arising  out  of  the 
warm  waters  of  the  Japan  current  far  away  to  the 
south,  drift  poleward,  and  are  interrupted  b)' 
the  sky-scraping  peaks  of  the  Alaska  Range.  A 
local  current  of  air  carries  the  clouds  north-east 
and  drags  them  from  one  glacial  depression  to 
another,  over  ridge  after  ridge,  and  peak  after 
peak,  until  the  beautiful  forms  of  the  clouds 
are  torn  into  shatters  and  drift  in  sections  to  the 
surface  of  a  glacier,  dropping  tropical  humidity 
to  augment  the  arctic  output  of  the  stream  of 
glacial  ice. 


2IO  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

The  west  of  the  mountain  presents  a  face  twenty- 
five  miles  wide  with  one  great  glacier  (Hanna) 
sweeping  the  entire  reach.  Here,  too,  we  noted 
the  destination  and  the  final  resting  place  of  an 
endless  train  of  active  clouds.  These  clouds  came 
out  of  Bering  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  drifted 
against  the  range  a  hundred  miles  southward,  and 
then  like  the  clouds  from  the  east  they  too  were 
carried  along  the  western  side  of  the  range  by  a 
north-east  current.  Thus  the  vapours  of  the 
tropics  were  precipitated  to  the  east  while  the 
vapours  of  the  Arctic  were  precipitated  to  the  west. 
Here  then  is  the  meeting  place  of  the  frigids 
and  the  torrids.  In  every  gulch,  glacial  gap,  or 
valley  the  local  winds  rolled  down  from  the  upper 
slopes  carrying  down  torn  bits  of  clouds,  with  the 
result  that  there  was  a  never-ceasing  rush  up  and 
down,  to  and  fro,  in  the  cloud  world.  But  by 
far  the  most  interesting  battle  was  along  the 
saw-tooth  cuts  of  the  great  north-east  ridge.  Here 
we  noted  a  ceaseless  warfare  between  the  pale 
arctic  clouds  and  the  dark  Pacific  clouds.  There 
was  a  great  deal  of  change  on  the  ridge  in  baro- 
metric pressure  as  we  had  noted,  winds  rushed  over 
the  ridge  from  the  Susitna  valley  to  the  Kuskok- 
wim  and  vice  versa  with  a  dangerous  suddenness, 
carrying  along  clouds  and  drifting  snow  in  huge 
quantities.  All  of  this  could  be  easily  seen  from 
our  fourteen -thousand-feet  ditch,  while  w^e  shivered 
and  hoped  for  better  times.  With  the  upper 
clouds  on  both  sides  of  the  range  moving  along 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  211 

the  general  trend  of  the  mountains,  the  lower 
clouds  drifting  away  from  the  range,  and  the 
battle  of  angry  vapours  over  the  arete,  there 
was  a  wilderness  of  commotion  in  the  cloud  world 
which  quite  dazzled  us. 


CHAPTER  XII 

To  THE  Brink  of  an  Arctic  Inferno. — ^A  Night 
IN  A  Ditch  at  14,000  Feet 

IN  ABOUT  an  hour  we  had  completed  our  observ- 
ation and  then  we  turned  for  a  look  at  the 
upper  slopes  for  a  route  to  the  top.  A  few  stratus 
films  were  brushing  the  snowy  crests  above,  and 
the  sun  poured  a  wealth  of  golden  light  over 
the  giant  cliffs,  illimiinating  the  rushing  snow  of  the 
plunging  avalanches  with  a  wild  fire.  Along  the 
east  among  the  cliffs  that  had  seemed  impossible 
from  below  there  were  several  promising  lines  of 
attack  along  narrow  overhanging  glaciers  and 
over  steep  ice-sheeted  ridges.  Every  possible 
route  however  from  this  side  was  seen  as  the 
eye  followed  it  to  the  summit  to  be  crossed  some- 
where by  avalanche  tracks.  Along  the  west  there 
was  a  similar  danger  from  the  sweep  of  the  cease- 
less downpouring  rock  and  snow.  Our  only 
chance,  and  that  seemed  a  hopeless  one,  was  along 
the  cornice  of  the  north-eastern  arete  upon  which 
we  were  camped.  For  some  distance  there  was  a 
smooth  line  of  crusted  snow  with  a  sheer  drop  of 
about  4000  feet  to  either  side.  At  about  13,000 
feet  this  line  was  barred  by  a  huge  rock    with 


i 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  213 

vertical  sides  of  about  1,000  feet.  Beyond  this 
rock  there  were  other  cliffs  of  ice  and  granite,  and 
beyond  this  was  a  steep  arete  over  which  we  could 
go  from  the  west  to  the  northern  face  on  to  a 
glacier  and  into  a  valley  between  the  two  majestic 
peaks  which, we  now  saw  graced  the  summit. 

After  so  many  failures  along  lines  of  attack 
which  looked  good  from  a  distance  we  concluded 
that  to  determine  the  feasibility  of  this  route  it 
would  be  necessary  to  pick  a  way  around  the  big 
rock  and  into  the  median  depression  of  the  moun- 
tain. If  we  succeeded,  however,  in  doing  this 
we  might  as  well  prolong  our  siege  and  try  for  the 
top.  We  had  food  and  fuel  enough  for  this,  but 
the  winter  was  so  far  advanced  that  the  venture 
seemed  imprudent. 

With  a  half  notion  to  climb  to  the  summit,  but 
with  a  more  determined  resolution  to  pick  a  route 
for  a  future  ascent,  we  adjusted  our  rucksacks 
and  life  line  and  started  on  the  morning  of  Septem- 
ber 1 2th  along  this  cornice.  Soon  the  big  southern 
clouds  swept  the  mountain  and  we  were  left  to 
grope  among  the  spires  in  the  misty  blue  of  the 
cloud  world.  We  found  a  way  over  a  narrow 
cornice  around  the  big  rock  and  then  we  dug 
and  scratched  for  a  footing  among  the  ice  blocks 
in  the  narrow  gorges  between  sharp  pinnacles. 
With  the  dimness  of  the  light  and  the  limited 
range  of  vision  we  could  not  determine  here  the 
prospective  course  of  avalanches,  and  this  un- 
certainty gave  us  a  great  deal  of  anxiety.       Our 


214  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

course  was  very  irregular,  winding  around  granite 
walls  into  gloomy  seracs,  over  dangerous  snow 
bridges,  the  climb  becoming  more  impossible  with 
every  step. 

Out  of  an  amphitheatre  with  its  crescentic 
walls  of  granite  polished  by  the  ice  of  ages,  over 
tumbling  blue-ribbed  streams  of  ice  into  the  aerial 
mystery  of  sweeping  clouds,  groping  for  hours  in 
the  frosty  night,  picking  a  sure  footing  among 
treacherous  cliffs,  we  at  last  broke  through  the 
clouds  and  climbed  on  to  a  wind-rasped  cornice 
for  a  rest. 

Every  moment  some  colossal  block  thundered 
out  of  the  clouds  followed  by  a  rumbling  train 
of  snow  and  ice.  With  bumps  and  roars  and 
hisses,  the  seething  run  of  debris  came  from  cliffs 
unseen  and  plunged  into  echoing  depths  incon- 
ceivable. For  days  and  months  and  years  and 
centuries  these  reducing  trains  have  been  at  work 
thus  by  chemical  action,  by  the  winds,  by  the 
sweep  of  the  clouds  depositing  snow,  by  the  action 
of  the  ice  melting,  by  the  spreading  of  ice  in  the 
rock  crevasses,  by  the  general  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  heat  and  cold,  by  the  force  of  gravity. 
The  time  must  come,  if  this  cooling  earth  lasts 
long  enough,  when  this  great  majestic  tier  of 
chiselled  granite  above  the  clouds  will  all  have 
settled  into  an  ugly  mound,  a  mere  forgotten  grave 
of  an  alpine  monarch. 

We  continued  our  steep  ascent  farther  and 
farther   into   the   icy   clouds   curling    above    our 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  215 

heads  up  the  knife  edge  of  the  north  arete, 
around  a  great  spur,  from  cornice  to  cornice, 
cresting  sheer  cHffs  over  which  there  was  a 
sickening  drop  of  ten  thousand  feet,  into  the 
mystery  of  a  lower  arctic  world,  and  then  began 
the  awful  task  of  making  a  ladder  for  two  thoti- 
sand  feet.  With  eternity  but  an  easy  step  below 
every  moment  of  this  climb  we  went  from  hanging 
glacier  to  snow  slopes,  from  blue  grottoes  to 
pink  pinnacles,  from  security  to  insecurity,  with 
the  thundering  rush  of  avalanches  on  both  sides. 
If  there  ever  was  a  more  disheartening  task  it  has 
not  been  my  misfortune  to  be  confronted  with 
it. 

We  would  have  been  glad  enough  to  return  and 
give  up  the  task  at  this  time  but  night  was  near 
and  the  little  light  that  remained  was  blotted 
out  by  the  gloom  of  a  coming  snowstorm.  To 
return  over  the  dangerous  cornices  in  the  dark 
was  impossible.  To  camp  anywhere  within  reach 
was  equally  impossible.  For  self-preservation  we 
must  move  up  out  of  the  dangerous  area.  Keeping 
the  rope  tight  we  chipped  steps  as  near  the  ridge  as 
was  possible  and  remained  sheltered  from  the  wind. 
One  hundred  steps  and  Barrille  took  the  axe,  then 
another  one  hundred  steps  and  it  was  my  turn. 
We  could  not  see  the  slopes  above  for  more  than  a 
hundred  yards,  and  below  everything  was  ob- 
scured by  twisting  clouds  and  drifting  snows.  It 
was  black  at  seven  o'clock.  We  dropped  into 
the  steps  from  sheer  exhaustion.     There  is  a  limit 


2i6  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

to  human  endurance,  and  we  had  reached  that 
Hmit,  but  where  could  we  rest  and  hve  for  the 
night?  There  were  snow  slopes  not  far  away, 
but  they  were  swept  by  avalanches.  The  safest 
place  was  along  the  steep  arete. 

Our  axes  had  been  kept  chopping  steps  all  day, 
and  our  rise  in  altitude  was  very  little,  but  w^e 
got  beyond  the  barriers  and  out  of  the  area  of 
windy  cliffs  and  frigid  crags  out  on  a  steep  snow- 
sheeted  arete. 

We  uttered  a  sigh  of  relief  as  we  rose  on  the  icy 
steps  of  our  Jacob's  ladder,  out  of  the  gloomy 
dangers  from  below  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  cloud 
zone.  We  uttered  a  good  many  other  sighs  of 
despair  before  the  night  was  spent.  The  little 
colour  which  we  were  able  to  note  between  the 
cloud  rifts  indicated  sunset.  It  was  7:20  by 
the  watch,  the  mercury  stood  at  11°  below  zero, 
and  the  compass  pointed  to  the  tip  of  a  new 
peak  above  the  clouds  28°  east  of  north,  the 
only  mountain  visible.  The  thin  blue  haze  about 
us  was  thickening  to  a  colder  blue,  ragged  out- 
lines of  torn  cloud  filaments  were  noted,  crys- 
tals of  snow  fell  as  we  rested  and  talked  of  the 
chances  of  camp  or  shelter  on  a  cloud-swept  slope 
too  steep  for  a  seat.  The  blackness  of  night  was 
thickening  fast  and  its  chill  increased  in  penetra- 
tion with  the  decrease  of  the  light.  We  knew 
that  we  could  not  descend  to  a  sheltered  spot,  for 
there  was  none  within  the  day's  climb.  The 
darkness  was  too  far  advanced  and  we  were  too 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  217 

nearly  exhausted  to  risk  a  farther  ascent  into 
the  unknown  dangers  above.  The  slope  upon 
which  we  had  cut  steps  and  seats  in  the  ice  was 
nearly  60°  but  the  ice  was  secure,  the  snow  firm, 
and  the  danger  from  avalanches  small.  As  a 
duty  to  ourselves  and  our  families  we  had  no 
alternative  but  to  dig  into  the  icy  side  of  the 
mountain  and  hold  on  for  the  night. 

In  this  side-hill  ditch  we  fitted  ourselves  securely 
with  a  view  to  the  effects  of  slumber  movements. 
For  if  we  slipped  from  the  ditch  we  would  plunge 
thousands  of  feet  through  the  clouds  to  the  smoky 
depths  of  an  arctic  inferno.  We  wrapped  our- 
selves in  a  bundle  with  all  of  our  belongings 
including  the  silk  tent,  then  lashed  the  bundle  to 
the  axes,  which  were  securely  driven  into  the  ice 
and  in  this  way  we  held  on  for  the  night.  The 
fine  snow  drifted  down  our  necks  and  into  the 
cracks  of  the  dug-out,  but  we  did  not  dare  to 
move  for  fear  the  snow  would  fill  the  gap,  crowd 
us  out,  and  we  would  be  left  to  hold  on  to  the 
axes  to  stay  us  from  a  death  plunge. 

Avalanches  thundered  down  from  both  sides 
at  close  range.  The  night  was  very  long  and 
stormy.  There  were  frequent  rifts  in  the  clouds 
through  which  we  saw  clusters  of  stars  framed 
by  silvery  films  of  vapour — beautiful  pictures 
in  the  retrospect,  but  we  were  then  not  in  a 
humour  to  appreciate  the  glories  of  our  outlook. 
We  were  interested  more  in  the  break  of  day  and 
in  the  chances  of  getting  to  a  place  of  greater 


2i8  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

security.  The  thought  of  going  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain  was  dispelled  by  the  misery  of  that 
awful  night.  We  were  too  tightly  bundled  to 
disagree  actively,  though  we  spent  wakeful  hours 
in  mild  arguments.  We  agreed,  however,  on  two 
points :  we  must  hold  on,  freeze  to  the  ice  if  possible, 
and  with  the  first  light  make  for  the  low  country, 
abandon  mountain  climbing,  and  take  to  a  better 
life.  But  with  the  break  of  day  with  its  fetching 
polar  glory  all  of  this  disheartening  note  of  aban- 
donment and  danger  changed.  Now  our  deter- 
mination to  retreat  resolved  itself  into  a  resolution 
to  go  to  the  top. 

With  the  chill  of  dawn  the  upper  clouds  froze 
to  the  slopes,  while  the  lower  clouds  settled  lower 
and  lower  into  the  maze  of  glacial  canyons. 
Through  these  lower  clouds  there  was  a  burst  of 
fire  and  with  it  the  great  glittering  spires  above 
blazed  with  a  glow  of  rose.  This  glow  lasted 
but  a  short  time,  then  the  normal  frost  of  purple 
and  blue  submerged  every  hope  of  feeling  heat 
or  seeing  warmth  in  colour.  As  we  dragged 
ourselves  out  of  this  icy  ditch  of  terrors  we  were 
able  to  see  that  we  had  passed  the  barriers  to  the 
ascent.  The  slopes  above  were  easy,  safe,  and 
connected,  but  the  bigness  of  the  mountain  was 
more  and  more  apparent  as  we  rose  above  the 
clouds.  Instead  of  our  having  to  climb  one 
mountain  we  were  forced  to  deal  with  peak  upon 
peak  and  mountains  within  a  mountain.  The 
task  enlarged  with  the  ascent.     Rising  over  crest 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  219 

after  crest  we  finally  reached  what  seemed  to 
be  the  top  of  the  mountain.  But  it  was  only  a 
spur,  and  beyond  it  were  many  other  spurs.  The 
air  became  clearer  and  sharper  with  every  step, 
and  our  exhaustion,  mostly  the  result  of  sleepless- 
ness and  anxiety  of  the  previous  night,  was  in- 
creasingly felt. 

Soon  after  noon  we  swung  from  the  arete 
easterly  to  the  glacier.  Here  owing  to  fatigue 
progress  was  slow. 

The  snow  was  hard  and  the  slope  such  that 
little  step-cutting  was  now  necessary.  Along 
the  glacier  to  the  gathering  basin  near  the  summit 
the  prospective  route  rose  in  easy  slants  to  our 
goal.  Above  it  was  perfectly  clear,  but  below 
there  was  an  ever-changing  drift  of  cloud  ob- 
scurity in  which  we  had  spent  two  days  of  despair. 
If  torment  is  the  test  of  Hades  then  the  habitat 
of  Mephisto  was  in  that  cloud-world  at  our  feet. 

There  is  a  sinister  and  savage  ferocity  along 
the  middle  slopes  of  shelves  and  cliffs  and  clouds 
and  storms  that  is  accentuated  by  a  precarious 
footing  as  well  as  by  the  rush  and  thunder  of 
avalanches.  Everything  was  snow  covered  as  we 
looked  over  the  sheen  of  death  and  destruction. 
There  was  absolutely  no  semblance  of  life  in  sight 
and  it  seemed  months  since  we  left  the  comfortable 
camp-fires.  If  it  were  a  mountain  of  skulls  it 
would  not  convey  a  more  forcible  sense  of  gloom. 

In  picking  a  way  among  the  s6racs  we  soon 
found  that  our  muscles  refused  to  work.     Though 


2  20  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  climb  was  easy  we  could  not  gather  enough 
energy  to  continue  the  ascent.  The  night  in 
the  ditch  and  the  prolonged  expenditure  of  energy 
along  the  middle  slopes  had  pressed  us  to  the 
verge  of  collapse.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  seemed  best  to  seek  a  good  camping  spot  on  the 
glacier  with  a  view  to  resting  for  a  day  to  recuper- 
ate and  store  up  force  for  the  final  spurt  of  the 
upper  ascent. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Glory  and  Desolation  above  the  Clouds 
FROM  16,300  TO  18,400  Feet 

WE  FOUND  a  level  space  in  a  small  amphi- 
theatre where  the  snow  was  hard  enough 
to  cut  blocks  for  a  snow  house,  and  though  the  view 
was  magnificent  beyond  anything  previously  seen 
we  turned  our  backs  to  visual  glories  and  crept 
into  the  snow  hut  and  into  our  bags  to  prepare 
for  food  and  a  long  rest.  While  the  alcohol  lamp 
spent  its  feeble  heat  against  the  pail  of  snow  we 
dozed,  to  dream  of  far-off  comfort,  awaking  every 
few  moments  to  the  chills  of  an  icy  reality.  Through 
the  door  we  peeped  at  the  changing  sheen  of  gloom 
of  the  lower  world. 

For  desolation  it  would  strain  the  English 
dictionary  to  describe  it,  but  there  are  shades  of 
desolation  as  there  are  grades  of  intoxication. 
Last  night  the  note  of  abandon  was  soul  destroy- 
ing. From  our  dug-out  in  the  treacherous  drop 
the  outlook  and  the  world  about  was  desperately 
gloomy.  To-night  with  the  sparkle  and  glitter  of 
the  snowy  world  above  the  clouds,  illuminated 
by  glowing  stars  that  hang  like  huge  arc  lights 


222  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

from  a  black  sky,  we  see  another  phase  of  desola- 
tion, one  full  of  hope,  inspiration,  and  promise. 

In  the  lower  climb  there  was  a  thrill  which 
fired  ambitions.  The  beauty  of  the  naked  cliffs 
raised  us  to  a  pitch  of  ecstasy  which  made  us  for- 
get fatigue,  but  in  the  upper  world  all  of  this  was 
changed.  It  was  a  region  of  harmony  in  colour 
and  contour.  A  suffusion  of  light  with  subdued 
colour  blends  to  frosty  shades.  A  softening  of 
contours  by  a  flooding  of  snow  crystals  fills  the 
ugly  gaps  and  rounds  off  the  sharp  corners.  But 
nevertheless  it  is  a  region  of  pulseless  eternity 
where  the  spirits  with  the  clouds  fall  to  earth 
in  weeping  sadness.  The  lack  of  movement,  the 
oppressive  stillness,  the  absence  of  every  speck 
of  life  impressed  upon  us  the  fact  that  we  were 
utterly  alone;  the  only  breathing  creatures  in 
a  great  expanse  of  mystery  far  above  the  habitable 
world. 

As  the  stifling  blackness  of  night  was  bleached 
by  the  blue  of  dawn  the  whole  weird  run  of  un- 
reality changed.  The  upper  world  of  silent  glory 
and  snowy  wonder  was  beyond  human  interpre- 
tation. We  have  a  similar  white  world  of  deathly 
glory  in  the  low  polar  wilds  but  there  the  clouds 
are  above  and  there  is  sometimes  a  glow  of  warm 
colour,  but  here  the  clouds  are  below,  the  sky  is 
black,  and  a  frosty  steel-coloured  light  is  poured 
over  the  sparkle  of  the  snow-fields.  There  is 
however  a  weird  fascination  in  this  curious  supra- 
cloudland.     It    is    difficult    to    grasp    the    thread 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  223 

with  which  it  rolls  up  its  spool  of  mysteries,  but 
to  me  the  most  striking  is  the  paradox  of  light  and 
colour:  at  your  feet  a  dazzling  whiteness,  overhead 
a  dense  blackness,  in  space  a  gloomy  neutral  play 
of  dull  blues. 

When  I  was  a  boy  I  had  a  distinct  notion 
of  the  geography  of  heaven  and  of  the  regions 
above  the  clouds.  The  splendid  colours  of  sun- 
bursts, sunsets,  and  indeed  all  brilliant  displays 
were  manifestations  of  the  glory  of  heaven,  which  I 
placed  among  the  clouds.  I  did  not  know  that 
there  was  a  cloud-world  rather  close  to  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  and  beyond,  far  beyond  the  blue  sky 
which  we  believed  to  be  the  limit  of  space  there 
was  a  great  unknown  without  colour  or  light! 
In  later  years  I  was  inclined  to  push  the  actual 
location  of  heaven  into  this  mysterious  void  far 
away,  but  to-day  I  am  bound  to  confess  that  I 
believe  the  spiritual  future  which  we  in  a  figura- 
tive way  style  heaven  is  very  near  the  terrestrial 
surface. 

As  we  ascended  into  this  cloud  world  we  thought 
of  angels  in  light  attire  with  wings,  and  of  an  easy 
world  of  rare  glory.  But  how  different  was  our 
realisation.  As  the  great  bunches  of  vapour  which 
we  call  clouds  brushed  against  us  along  the  middle 
slopes  we  were  submerged  by  a  gloomy  darkness 
preceded  and  followed  by  icy  gusts  of  wind  while 
the  incessant  showers  of  fine  snow  made  a  weeping 
spectacle.  This  environment  of  the  cloud  world 
was  indeed  opposed  to  a  heavenly  or  even  a  con- 


2  24  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

genial  spirit.  We  were  in  desperate  mood,  with- 
out poetry  or  sesthetic  appreciation;  with  heavy 
packs  on  our  backs,  treading  a  path  through  deep 
snow  up  dangerous  slopes,  where  wind  drove  snow 
into  our  faces,  down  our  necks,  withal  a  depressing 
monotony  of  colour,  and  with  no  safe  place  where 
we  could  rest  our  weary  bones.  From  cliff  to  cliff, 
from  grotto  to  spire,  from  cloud  to  cloud,  up  and 
up  farther  and  farther  into  whirling  vapours  we 
pushed  until  at  last  when  we  thought  night  had 
dropped  over  us,  we  suddenly  burst  through  the 
clouds  into  a  glistening  pearly  twilight  with  stars 
hanging  low  like  electric  lights.  The  brilliancy 
of  this  glittering  half  light  was  new  to  us,  the 
darkness  of  the  sky  was  even  more  surprising. 
This  however  as  we  learned  later  is  one  of  the 
natural  conditions  of  the  land  above  the  clouds. 
The  snow  here  was  such  that  we  were  able  to  build 
a  snow  house  and  in  it  we  packed  ourselves  for  a 
long  rest. 

As  the  stars  were  beginning  to  fade  on  the  fol- 
lowing morning,  the  sixth  day  of  our  climb,  we 
kicked  out  the  snow  block  which  made  our  door, 
and  crawled  on  to  the  crackling  surface.  The 
temperature  was  15°  below  zero.  The  light  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  the  oppressive  stillness  con- 
trasted strongly  with  the  noisy  rush  of  avalanches 
below.  The  marvels  in  this  new  world  of  ice 
were  slow  in  penetrating  our  frosty  senses.  Even 
after  we  began  to  appreciate  the  anomaly  of 
things  we  questioned  our  perceptions.     We  were 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  225 

surely  in  a  land  of  paradoxes.  Here  looking 
down  ever  so  far  below,  we  could  see  a  sea  of 
clouds  whose  upper  filament  waved  in  the  gold 
of  the  rising  sun,  while  above  us  was  a  dark  gray- 
blue  sky  with  the  stars  still  visible.  The  snow 
and  the  rocks  glittered  with  a  weird  brightness 
seeming  to  come  out  of  the  earth — darkness  above, 
light  from  below;  things  were  certainly  topsy- 
turvy. This  supra-cloud  world  is  a  land  of  fantasy, 
of  strange  other- wo  rid  illusions.  Here  summers 
are  winters  and  winters  are  what  a  polar  traveller 
believes  Hades  ought  to  be. 

Starting  from  camp,  at  16,300  feet,  picking 
a  trail  around  successive  s^racs,  our  progress  was 
good.  We  still  felt  the  bad  effects  of  our  over- 
worked muscles  on  the  lower  climbs ;  but  we  hoped 
to  be  able  to  push  on  to  the  summit  that  day. 
However  the  increasing  altitude,  the  very  low 
temperatures,  and  the  lack  of  nerve  energy  all 
combined  to  make  our  ascent  extremely  difficult. 

During  the  frequent  breathing  spells  we  ex- 
amined the  upper  reaches  of  the  mountain. 
We  had  seen  the  summit  from  various  sides,  but 
we  were  not  prepared  for  the  surprise  of  the  great 
spread  of  surface.  From  below  the  apex  appears 
like  a  single  peak,  with  gradual  slopes.  From  the 
northern  foothills  we  had  previously  discovered 
two  distinct  peaks.  But  now,  from  the  upper 
slopes,  we  saw  that  there  were  several  miniature 
ranges  running  up  to  two  main  peaks  about  two 
miles  apart.     To  the  west  a  ridge  with  a  saddle, 


226  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

to  the  east  a  similar  ridge,  with  one  main  peak 
to  the  south-east.  This  peak  was  the  highest  point, 
and  to  it  we  aimed  to  take  our  weary  spirits. 

Compared  to  our  lower  climbs  the  slope  here  was 
ridiculously  easy,  but  the  work  was  hard,  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  seeming  difficulties.  After 
slowly  making  a  hundred  steps  we  puffed  like 
race  horses  on  the  home  stretch,  and  were  forced 
to  stop  and  gasp  for  breath;  another  hundred 
steps  and  another  gasp,  and  so  on.  We  tried 
to  pull  ourselves  together  in  a  renewed  compact 
to  rise,  but  do  what  we  could,  cheer  each  other 
as  we  could,  the  thing  seemed  impossible,  purely 
because  of  our  inability  to  raise  one  foot  above 
another.  Our  legs  were  of  wood  and  our  feet  of 
stone.  After  prodigious  efforts  we  were  forced 
to  camp  at  18,400  feet  with  not  enough  energy 
left  to  talk  or  to  eat. 

The  silk  tent  was  pitched  in  a  gathering  basin 
under  the  shadow  of  the  topmost  peak  and  as  we 
crept  into  the  bags  we  were  so  reduced  by  frost 
and  the  awful  breath-reducing  struggles  that  we 
were  but  half  conscious  of  the  surroundings. 

The  circulation  was  so  depressed  that  it  was 
impossible  to  dispel  the  sense  of  chilliness.  In- 
creased clothing  or  bed-covers  did  not  seem  to 
make  much  difference.  The  best  thing  to  dispel 
the  shivers  was  hot  tea.  The  alcohol-lamp  was  not 
a  success  at  this  altitude.  But  with  a  good  deal 
of  nursing  we  succeeded  in  melting  snow  enough 
for  our  drinks.     The  water  boiled  at  a  point  so 


Copyright,  1907,  by  Harper  and  Brothers  Copyright.  1907,  by  F.  A.  Cook 

THE  TOP  OF  OUR  CONTINEXT 

The  summit  of  Mt.  McKinlcy,  the  highest  mountnin  of  Xorth  America.    Altitude,  20,390  feet 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  227 

low  that  the  tea  was  weak  and  never  too  hot. 
Indeed,  if  we  desired  the  real  flavour  of  the  tea, 
it  was  necessary  to  eat  the  tea-leaves. 

It  was  a  restless  and  exciting  night.  Restless, 
because  the  task  of  breathing  less  than  one  half 
an  atmosphere  and  pumping  blood  through  col- 
lapsing arteries  abnormally  taxed  our  powers. 
Exciting,  because  with  heaving,  pulsating  bodies 
we  felt  as  if  the  end  of  life  had  come  and  the  door 
of  heaven  was  about  to  open. 

This  last  night  of  the  climb  was  one  which  we 
will  long  remember.  We  were  not  able  to  see 
anything  with  a  normal  perspective  until  long 
after  midnight.  Unable  to  sleep  we  were  only 
permitted  to  rest  in  a  semi-reclining  position  with 
shoulders  raised,  in  which  attitude  the  heart  was 
eased  and  breath  came  and  went  with  less  effort. 

We  had  to  contend  with  a  very  difficult  combin- 
ation opposed  to  our  comfort.  With  our  strength 
reduced  by  the  lower  climb,  with  no  reserve  en- 
ergy, with  a  low  temperature  to  which  were  added 
the  natural  depressive  effects  of  great  altitudes, 
we  were  indeed  much  handicapped.  Though  the 
temperature  was  only  16°  below  zero,  in  its  effects 
it  was  colder  than  60  below  at  sea  level.  The 
shivers  of  this  night  with  the  pumping,  thumping 
hearts  and  the  spasmodic  breath  will  always 
stand  out  as  the  worst  torment  of  our  endeavour. 

Words  did  not  freeze  and  tumble  about  us  as 
did  the  words  of  Mark  Twain's  hero  at  the  north 
pole,   who  found   himself  knee-deep  in  his  own 


228  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

eloquence,  but  as  we  raised  the  flap  from  our  faces 
we  did  find  ourselves  nose-deep  in  the  frost  of  our 
own  breath. 

We  believed  this  to  be  our  last  camp  but  the 
outcome  of  our  final  assault  was  not  at  all  a 
hopeful  one.  In  a  critical  examination  of  our- 
selves we  found  that  all  of  the  pleasurable  sensa- 
tions had  merged  with  the  strain  of  the  terrible 
task  of  climbing,  but  there  was  still  the  mechanism 
of  duty  which  pushed  us  upward.  The  courage 
born  of  inspiration,  the  enthusiasm  arising  from 
anticipation,  and  all  of  the  spirit  of  the  joys  of 
the  pioneer  ascent  had  been  put  into  the  slav- 
ish bent  to  press  one  foot  above  another  to  the 
summit. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

To   THE   Top. — The   World   in   White    and 
THE  Heavens  in  Black 

LONG  before  dawn  we  rolled  out  of  the  sleep- 
ing bags,  crept  out  of  the  tent,  and  then 
placing  the  robes  about  our  shivering  shoulders 
we  studied  the  brightening  blue  of  the  topmost 
pinnacle  of  the  Alpine  North  Pole.  I  never  saw 
a  more  impressive  spectacle.  The  peak  loomed  up 
like  a  giant  mountain  in  the  curiously  deceptive 
light  before  dawn.  In  reality  it  was  but  two  thou- 
sand feet  above  our  camp,  a  mere  fraction  of  the 
altitude  of  the  great  mountain,  but  in  our  enfeebled 
condition  the  peak  appeared  as  high  and  as  diffi- 
cult as  the  entire  uplift  from  the  first  camps.  As 
the  darkness  merged  into  twilight  the  sky  bright- 
ened, but  as  the  sun  rose  the  sky  darkened  and 
the  cold  increased. 

With  numb  fingers  and  teeth  chattering  we 
packed  our  sleeping  bags  and  a  light  emergency 
ration  in  the  rucksacks  and  then  with  a  grim  deter- 
mination we  started  for  the  culminating  peak.  The 
sun  soon  rose  far  above  the  green  lowland  beyond 
Mount  Hayes  and  moved  toward  the  ice-blink 
caused  by  the  extensive  glacial  sheets  north  of  the 

229 


230  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

St.  Elias  group.  Our  route  was  over  a  feathery 
snow-field  which  cushioned  the  gap  between  rows 
of  granite  pinnacles.  During  most  of  this 
part  of  the  ascent  we  were  in  frosty  shadows 
where  the  cold  pierced  to  the  bone,  but  when  we 
did  rise  into  the  direct  sunbeams  there  was  a  dis- 
tinct warm  sensation.  Ten  yards  awa}^  however, 
in  another  shadow,  the  air  was  as  cold  as  during 
the  polar  night.  The  sunbeams  seemed  to  pass 
through  the  air  without  leaving  behind  a  trace  of 
heat,  similar  to  the  effect  of  an  electric  spark 
through  space. 

A  magnificent  spread  of  an  other-world  glory 
ran  in  every  direction.  A  weird  world  in  white, 
with  stars  fading  in  gloomy  blackness.  Far  below 
were  milky  waves  of  clouds  and  still  farther  down 
ugly  gaps  of  indigo  into  which  the  vapours  settled 
to  their  last  resting-place.  At  the  present  writing 
I  am  tempted  to  enlarge  on  the  awe-inspiring 
grandeur  of  this  scene,  but  at  the  time  we  were 
too  miserable  to  spend  even  visual  energy  on  mere 
scenic  effects. 

An  advance  of  twenty  steps  so  fagged  us  that  we 
were  forced  to  lean  over  on  our  ice-axes  to  puff 
and  ease  the  heart;  another  twenty  steps  and 
another  rest,  and  so  on  in  a  life-racking  series  of 
final  effort. 

The  last  few  hundred  feet  of  the  ascent  so 
reduced  our  physical  powers  that  we  dropped  on 
to  the  snow,  completely  exhausted,  gasping  for 
breath.    We  had  gone  so  near  the  limit  of  human 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  231 

endurance  that  we  did  not  appreciate  the  proud 
moments  of  the  hard-earned  success.  Glad  enough 
were  we  to  pull  the  eider-down  robes  about  us, 
and  allow  our  thumping,  overworked  hearts,  as 
well  as  our  lungs,  labouring  in  less  than  half  an 
atmosphere,  to  catch  up.  We  puffed  and  puffed, 
and  after  a  while  the  sickening  thump  under  the 
left  fifth  rib  became  less  noticeable.  Breath  came 
and  went  easier,  and  then  the  call  of  the  top  was 
again  uppermost.  It  was  an  awful  task,  however, 
to  pick  ourselves  up  out  of  the  deep  snow  and 
set  the  unwilling  muscles  to  work  pulling  up  our 
legs  of  stone.  The  mind  was  fixed  on  the  glitter 
of  the  summit,  but  the  motive  force  was  not  in 
harmony  with  this  ambition. 

Just  below  the  summit  we  dropped  over  an  icy 
shelf  on  the  verge  of  collapse.  After  a  few  moments 
we  gathered  breath  and  courage  and  then  for  the 
last  stage  the  life  line  tightened  with  a  nervous 
pull.  We  edged  up  along  a  steep  snowy  ridge 
and  over  the  heaven-scraped  granite  to  the  top. 
At  Last  !  The  soul -stirring  task  was  crowned  with 
victory;  the  top  of  the  continent  was  under  our 
feet.  Our  hands  clasped,  but  not  a  word  was 
uttered.  We  felt  like  shouting,  but  we  had  not 
the  breath  to  spare.  The  thing  that  impressed 
me  first  was  the  noble  character  of  Edward 
Barrille,  the  bigness  in  heart  and  soul  of  the  man 
who  had  followed  me,  without  a  word  of  com- 
plaint, through  hopelessness  to  success;  and  then 
after     several     long     breaths     the    ghastly    un- 


232    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

reality  of  our  position  began  to  excite  my  frosted 
senses. 

Curious  experience  this.  It  was  September 
i6th,  the  temperature  i6  degrees  below  zero,  the 
altitude  20,390  feet.  The  Arctic  Circle  was  in 
sight;  so  was  the  Pacific  Ocean.  We  were  inter- 
ested mostly,  not  in  the  distant  scenes,  but  in  the 
very  strange  anomaly  of  our  immediate  surround- 
ings. It  was  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  sky 
w^as  as  black  as  that  of  midnight.  At  our  feet  the 
snow  glittered  with  a  ghastly  light.  As  the  eye 
ran  down  we  saw  the  upper  clouds  drawn  out  in 
long  strings,  and  still  farther  down  the  big  cumu- 
lus forms,  and  through  the  gap  far  below,  seem- 
ingly in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  bits  of  rugged 
landscape.  The  frightful  uncanny  aspect  of  the 
outlook  made  us  dizzy.  Fifty  thousand  square 
miles  of  our  arctic  wonderland  was  spread  out 
under  our  enlarged  horizon,  but  we  could  see  it 
only  in  sections.  Various  trains  of  morning  clouds 
screened  the  lowlands  and  entwined  the  lesser 
peaks.  We  could  see  narrow  silvery  bands  marking 
the  course  of  the  Yukon  and  the  Tanana,  while 
to  the  south,  looking  over  nearby  clouds,  we  had 
an  unobstructed  view.  Mt.  Susitna,  one  hundred 
miles  away  in  a  great  green  expanse,  was  but  a 
step  in  the  run  of  distance.  The  icy  cones  of  the 
burning  volcanoes  Redoubt,  Illiamna,  and  China- 
bora,  the  last  two  hundred  miles  away,  were  clearly 
visible  with  their  rising  vapours.  Still  farther 
the  point  of  Kenai   Peninsula,   and  beyond,  the 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  233 

broad  sweep  of  the  Pacific  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  away! 

A  record  of  our  conquest  was,  with  a  small  flag, 
pressed  into  a  metallic  tube  and  left  in  a  protected 
nook  a  short  distance  below  the  summit.  A 
round  of  angles  was  taken  with  the  prismatic 
compass.  The  barometers  and  thermometers 
were  read,  and  hasty  notes  jotted  down  in  our 
note-book.  Most  impressive  was  the  curious  low 
dark  sky,  the  dazzling  brightness  of  the  frosted 
granite  blocks,  the  neutral  gray-blue  of  space, 
the  frosty  dark  blue  of  the  shadows,  and,  above 
all,  the  final  picture  which  I  took  of  Barrille,  with 
the  flag  lashed  to  his  axe,  as  the  arctic  air  froze 
the  impression  into  a  relief  which  no  words  can  tell. 

The  descent  was  less  difficult,  but  it  took  us 
four  days  to  tumble  down  to  our  base  camp. 

Dokkin,  during  our  absence  having  grown 
enthusiastic  about  the  chances  of  gold  and  copper 
mining,  asked  to  be  grub-staked.  We  had  food 
enough  for  one  man  for  a  year,  and  left  this  with 
our  companion  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the  newly 
explored  regions.  The  Bolshoy  descended  the 
river  quickly  and,  taking  the  scattered  parties  from 
the  Susitna  Station  on  the  next  day,  we  pushed 
on  to  Tyonok,  and  to  Kenai,  and  from  there  south- 
ward by  the  regular  steamers. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  A. 

Sketch  of  Geology  of  Mt.  McKinley  Region 
by  alfred  h.  brooks 

THE  western  part  of  North  America  is  trav- 
ersed from  south  to  north  by  a  moun- 
tainous region  known  as  the  cordillera.  This 
Cordillera  runs  parallel  to  the  Pacific  shore  line, 
trending  north-westerly  through  the  United  States 
and  Canada  and  then,  after  entering  Alaska  and 
near  the  one  hundred  and  fiftieth  meridian,  curv- 
ing to  the  south-west  around  the  Gulf  of  Alaska. 
This  great  bend  is  the  topographic  reflection  of 
underlying  bed  rock  flexures.  It  is  here  that  the 
bed  rock  terranes,  which  have  maintained  a  north- 
westerly direction  throughout  North  America, 
turn  to  meet  north-westerly  structures  which, 
geologically  speaking,  belong  to  Asia.  At  this 
meeting  point  between  rock  trends  of  the  old 
world  and  the  new  lies  the  Alaska  Range,  and 
almost  at  the  hinge  line  rises  the  huge  dome  of 
Mt.  McKinley. 

The  Alaska  Range — aptly  named  inasmuch  as  it 
is  the  most  magnificent  range  of  the  Territory — 
stretches  northerly  from  an  unexplored  region 
about  Lake  Clark  to  the  latitude  of  Mt.  McKinley, 

then  bends  north-easterly,  and  skirting  the  south- 

237 


238  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

ern  margin  of  the  Tanana  Valley,  finally,  through 
its  subordinate  spur,  the  Nutzotin  Mountains, 
merges  with  the  St.  Elias  Range  near  the  head  of 
the  White  River. 

The  crest  line  of  the  range,  about  ten  thousand 
feet  above  sea-level,  strikingly  even  and  well- 
defined,  lies  close  to  its  western  margin,  where  the 
mountains  fall  off  abruptly  to  a  gravel-floored 
plateau  which  slopes  to  the  Kuskokwim  and 
Tanana  valleys.  Eastward  (from  the  crest  line) 
the  mountains  descend  more  gradually  to  the 
Susitna  lowland.  The  maximum  width  of  the 
range  is  some  sixty  miles,  while  the  crescentic 
axis  has  a  length  of  about  five  hundred. 

The  higher  peaks  are  domes  with  precipitous 
walls,  while  the  connecting  crest  lines  are  sharp, 
with  steep  descents.  The  drainage  is  mostly 
carried  eastward  through  steep-walled  valleys, 
or  often  actual  canyons.  Throughout  the  high 
mountains  the  upper  reaches  of  the  drainage 
channels  are  buried  in  glacial  ice,  from  the  neve 
fields  filling  the  glacial  cirques  at  the  heads  of  the 
valleys.  On  the  coastal  side  the  glaciers  reach 
well  down  toward  the  Susitna  lowlands,  but  on  the 
inland  side  they  are  far  less  extensive,  reaching 
only  to  the  margin  of  the  gravel  plateau  already 
referred  to. 

The  component  strata  of  the  Alaska  Range  in- 
clude various  types  of  sedimentary  rocks  which 
were  laid  down  at  different  periods,  some  at  least 
as  early  as  the  older  Paleozoic,  others  as  late  as 
the  older  Tertiary.     During  the  past  ages  some 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  239 

volcanic  lavas  have  been  poured  out  in  this  re- 
gion, and  large  masses  of  granitic  rocks  were  also 
injected  as  igneous  masses  into  the  sedimentary 
strata. 

This  geologic  province,  embracing  the  Alaska 
Range,  is  one  where  the  earth's  stresses  have  mani- 
fested themselves  in  many  ways:  by  close  fold- 
ing and  fracturing  of  the  strata,  by  intrusions  of 
igneous  rocks,  or  by  movements  which  have  ele- 
vated or  depressed  extensive  areas,  at  one  time 
exposing  a  land  surface  to  erosion  by  bringing 
it  above  sea-level,  at  another  permitting  the 
deposition  of  sediments  by  depressing  it  below 
sea-level. 

Like  most  areas  of  high  relief,  these  moun- 
tains are  the  result  of  the  interaction  of  erosion  on 
areas  of  uplift;  that  is,  a  province  in  which  the 
destructive  agencies  of  erosion  have  not  kept  pace 
with  the  constructive  process  of  uplift. 

The  following  sketch  of  the  geology  is  based 
largely  on  my  own  and  Mr.  L.  M.  Pr indie's  obser- 
vations in  1902  along  a  route  of  exploration  which 
traversed  the  range  at  the  head  of  the  Kichatna 
and  then  followed  the  base  of  the  mountains 
north-easterly  to  the  Tanana  River.  Free  use  has 
also  been  made  of  the  work  of  other  members  of 
the  Geological  Survey  in  adjacent  areas,  and  of 
the  notes  furnished  by  Doctor  Cook's  party.  Man- 
ifestly, only  the  barest  outline  can  here  be  pre- 
sented, but  a  fuller  report  is  in  preparation,  which 
will  embody  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  field 
notes. 


240  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

In  the  first  of  the  following  sections  the  suc- 
cession of  the  various  rock  strata  will  be  presented, 
chiefly,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  in  tabular  form. 
This  will  be  followed  by  a  discussion  of  the  present 
attitude  of  the  sedimentary  beds,  under  the 
heading  "Structure."  Then,  after  a  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  sequence  of  geologic  events,  this 
sketch  will  close  with  a  summary  of  the  mineral 
resources,  under  the  caption  "  Economic  Geology." 

SUCCESSION    OF    ROCK    STRATA 

The  first  step  in  the  discussion  of  the  geology 
of  any  given  province  must  be  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  succession  of  rock  strata.  All  sedi- 
mentary rocks  have  been  derived  from  material 
originally  laid  down  in  horizontal  beds  on  the 
floor  of  an  ocean  or  other  body  of  water.  Such 
deposits  are  of  two  general  types:  (i)  deep  sea 
sediments,  in  which  calcareous  matter  derived 
from  organisms  dominates;  (2)  shallow-water  sed- 
iments which  comprise  clays,  sands,  and  gravels 
derived  from  the  erosion  of  near-by  land  masses. 
The  accumulation  of  sediments,  though  a  relatively 
slow  process,  measured  in  geological  time,  goes 
on  very  rapidly.  Thus,  during  one  of  the  minor 
geologic  subdivisions  of  the  past,  thousands  of 
feet  of  strata  may  accumulate,  while  the  deposits 
of  a  larger  subdivision,  such  as  the  Paleozoic,  may 
attain  a  thickness  to  be  measured  in  miles. 

If  the  sediments  remain  undisturbed  the  more 
deeply  buried  beds  become  altered  to  hard  rock 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  241 

solely  by  the  physical  changes  wrought  through 
the  blanketing  effect  of  the  superimposed  strata. 
More  often,  however,  this  change  to  hard  rock  is 
accelerated  by  crustal  movements  which  disturb 
the  strata.  Such  movements  are  also  often  ac- 
companied by  the  upward  injection  into  the  sedi- 
ments of  molten  rock  masses  from  the  abyssal 
regions.  Both  the  crustal  disturbances  and  the 
injection  of  igneous  rocks  produce  more  or  less 
chemical  and  physical  changes  in  the  sediments, 
and  this  change  is  termed  "  metamorphism." 

By  the  processes  described  above  the  sedi- 
ments laid  down  as  calcareous  matter,  mud,  sand, 
or  gravel  become  altered  to  hard  rock  such  as 
limestone,  slate,  sandstone,  and  conglomerate.  If 
these  changes  continue  long  enough,  or  the  agen- 
cies are  intense  enough,  limestones  are  changed 
to  marble,  and  slate  and  other  rocks  to  schists, 
thus  becoming  what  are  termed  ' '  metamorphic 
rocks." 

It  has  been  shown  that  igneous  intrusives, 
which  consolidated  at  depth,  may  form  an  inte- 
gral part  of  a  geologic  succession.  The  same  is  also 
true  of  volcanic  rocks,  comprising  those  of  igneous 
origin  consolidated  at  the  surface.  Such  volcan- 
ics,  including  various  types  of  lavas  as  well  as  tuff 
(volcanic  ash),  may  subsequently  become  buried 
under  later  strata  and  subject  to  the  same  pro- 
cesses of  alteration  as  the  sediments.  If  the 
metamorphism  is  intense  enough  then  lavas  may 
be  changed  to  schists  which  are  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish from  altered  sediments.    The  same  holds 


242  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

true  of  the  deep-seated  igneous  rocks,  and  thus  a 
granite  may  be  altered  to  a  schist. 

The  component  rocks  of  the  Alaska  Range  are 
the  products  of  the  above-described  processes  of 
sedimentation,  intrusion,  volcanism,  and  altera- 
tion which  have  been  operating  through  a  long 
period  of  time,  extending  back  at  least  as  far  as 
the  early  Paleozoic.  Some  of  these  agencies  have 
continued  to  be  active  to  the  present,  but  the 
youngest  strata  which  have  become  indurated  be- 
long to  the  early  Tertiary. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  sedi- 
ments of  the  Alaska  Range  form  an  unbroken 
succession  of  strata  deposited  in  the  same  ocean. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  there  were  recurrent  periods  of 
movement  which  altered  and  deformed  the  strata 
deposited  in  any  one  epoch,  many  of  which  brought 
the  rock  above  sea-level  as  land  masses  and  thus 
inaugurated  periods  of  erosion.  These  periods  of 
erosion,  which  furnished  the  sediments  for  the 
sedimentary  rocks  of  other  areas,  were  in  turn 
followed  by  submergence  and  the  recurrence  of 
sedimentation.  Epochs  of  erosion,  which  afford 
an  important  clue  to  the  geologic  history  of  a 
province,  are  made  evident  in  the  rocks  as  now 
exposed  by  the  discordance  of  the  beds  of  different 
formations,  and  then  are  termed  "  unconformities." 

The  strata  involved  in  the  dynamic  revolutions 
which  have  given  birth  to  the  Alaska  Range  vary 
in  age  from  a  belt  of  schists,  which  probably  belong 
to  the  lowest  member  of  the  Paleozoic,  to  rocks 
which  are  known  to  be  Tertiary.     Fossils,  which 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  243 

yield  the  only  definite  clue  to  the  age  of  strata, 
have  been  found  at  only  a  few  localities  in  this 
province,  but  so  far  as  the  evidence  goes  it  indicates 
the  presence  of  Ordovician,  Devonian,  Jurassic, 
and  Eocene  beds.  The  study  of  the  succession 
of  strata  furthermore  points  to  the  conclusion  that 
among  the  unfossilifei  ous  rock,  whose  age  has 
not  been  established,  pre-Ordovician,  Silurian, 
and  Triassic  strata  may  be  represented.  The 
general  stratigraphic  sequence  is  shown  in  the 
following  table,  which  undoubtedly  will  be  modi- 
fied when  more  detailed  studies  have  been  made. 


Generalised    Table    of    Stratigraphic    Sequence    in 
Alaska  Range. 


Quaternary 


Tertiary 
(Eocene) 
(Fragmentary 
plant  remains) 


Tertiary 
or 

Cretaceous? 
(Fragmentary- 
plant  remains) 


Jurassic 

(Middle  Jurassic 
invertebrate  fos- 
sils) 


Locality 

Throughout  the  pro- 
vince, but  most  ex- 
tensively developed 
along  the  base  of 
range. 

Unconformity. 
Lower  part  of  Cant- 
well    River    basin. 
Tyonok     and     along 
Skwentna  River. 

Unconformity  ? 

Upper  part  of  Cant- 
well  and  Kantishna 
river  basins. 


Unconformity. 

Heart    of    Alaska 
Range. 


Silts,  sands  and 
gravels  (in  part  of 
glacial  origin). 


White,  friable  sand- 
stone and  conglom- 
erate, with  lignite 
seams. 


Indurated  red  and 
brown  congloinerate, 
sandstone,  and  shale, 
with  some  coal  seams. 
Some  volcanics  of  un- 
determined age,  but 
known  to  be  post- 
Jurassic. 


Compact,  feldspathic 
sandstone,  grits, 
slates, and  some  lime- 
stones with  some  in- 
trusive  granites. 


Note  some  slates  occur  infolded   with  this 
long  to  an  older  formation. 


series  which  may  be- 


244  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 


Generalised  Table  of  Stratigraphic  Sequence  in  Alaska 
Range — Contimied 


Triassic? 


Carboniferous? 


Devonian 

(carryina     middle- 
Devonian  fossils) 


Devonian 

or 
Silurian 


Ordovician 

(carrying  grapto- 
lites) 


Pre-Ordovician 


Unconformity. 
Skwentna  Valley 


Unconformity  ? 
Inland  front  of  range. 


Unconformity 

Inland      front 
Alaska  Range. 


of 


Conformity  ? 

Inland  front  of 
Alaska  Range,  and 
probably  also  slates 
of  the  Susitna  Valley. 


Kuskokwim  Valley 
Unconformity  ? 
Part  of  upper  Cant- 


Intrusive,  igneous 
rocks,  volcanics,  with 
some  slates  and  black 
limestones. 


Heavy  quartz  con- 
glomerate intimately 
associated  with  the 
Devonian  limestone. 
It  may  be  younger 
or  older. 


Blue  silicious  lime- 
stone, with  some 
slate. 


Cherty  blue  and  black 
limestone,  black 
shales,  white,  red  and 
green  cherts,  and 
gray  slates,  with 
some  augen  gneisses 
which  are  probably 
altered  lavas. 


Black     carbonaceous 
shales  and  limestones. 


Mica-schists    with 


well  and  Kantishma!  some  greenstone  and 


river  basins. 


granites  intrusive. 


STRUCTURE 

The  term  structure,  as  here  used,  refers  to  the 
attitude  or  lay  of  strata  in  space,  and  their 
relative  position,  such  as  those  which  make  up 
the  Alaska  Range. 

In  presenting  an  analysis  of  bed  rock  structure, 
it  must  be  noted  that  during  the  past  geological 
ages  there  have  been  a  number  of  periods  of  fold- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  245 

ing  in  this  province,  and  that,  therefore,  the  pres- 
ent attitudes  of  the  terranes  is  the  final  result  of 
several    crustal    movements.      Lack    of    detailed 
studies  makes  it  impossible  to  differentiate  to  any 
I  considerable  extent  the  structures  of  the  various 
'periods  of  stress,  but  in  sketching  the  sequence  of 
;  geologic  events  below  these  will  be  briefly  touched 
upon.     It  is  proposed  to  consider  here  the  present 
,  attitude  of  the  bed  rock  strata  irrespective  of  the 
t  period    of    deformation    to    which    they   may   be 
[assigned. 

I     The  "strike"  or  "strike  line"  of  a  formation  is 
the  intersection  of  the  bedding  planes  of  the  ter- 
rane  with  a  horizontal  plane.    In  a  region  of  com- 
plex folding  the   strike   often  varies  from  place 
fto   place,    but   the   dominant   structures   usually 
follow  a  well-defined  system,  and  generally  where 
there  is  strong    relief    these  are  parallel  to  the 
major  topographic  features.     Such  is  the  case  in 
'ithis  province.     In  the  southern  part  of  the  range 
'.the  strikes  are  usually  about  north   and  south, 
\vhile    to    the   northward    they   gradually    swing 
'eastward  until  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  range 
:hey  are  nearly  east  and  west.  In  other  words  the 
inajor  strike  line,   like  the  axis  of  the  range,   is 
crescent ic  in  form. 

The  "dip"  of  the  strata  is  the  inclination  of 
heir  bedding  planes  with  the  horizontal.  While 
|n  this  discussion  the  absolute  angle  of  dip  is  of 
;mall  importance,  its  direction  is  essential  to  a  com- 
prehension of  the  structure  of  the  strata — for  the 
[iirection  of  dip  along  a  line  at  right  angles  to  strike 


246  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

indicates  whether  the  fold  is  an  arch  or  a  trough, 
the  first  being  called  a  syncline,  and  the  second 
an  anticline. 

So  far  as  known,  the  dominant  structure  of  the 
range  is  synclinal;  that  is,  the  terranes  on  both 
sides  of  the  mountains  dip  toward  the  axis.  As 
a  necessary  corollary,  the  oldest  infolded  rocks 
are  found  near  the  margins  of  the  mountains,  and 
the  youngest  near  the  centre.  This  is  the  dominant 
feature  along  one  route  of  exploration  across  the 
mountains,  and  appears  also  to  hold  true  in 
the  section  exposed  between  the  Susitna  and  the 
Tanana  along  the  Cantwell  River.  This  fold  is, 
however,  not  simple,  but  complex,  as  indicated 
in  the  accompanying  sketch  which  shows  that 
there  are  a  number  of  smaller  folds  within  the 
larger  syncline;  in  other  words,  it  is  what  is 
known  as  a  "synclinorium."  Could  a  section 
be  drawn  on  a  larger  scale  and  in  more  detail, 
still  greater  complexities  of  structure  would  be 
brought  out.  For  this  discussion,  however,  it 
will  suffice  to  state  that  the  range  has  a  general 
synclinical  structure. 

When  a  rock  stratum  is  folded  beyond  its 
tensile  strength,  fracturing  takes  place,  usually 
accompanied  by  more  or  less  displacement.  This 
phenomenon,  called  "faulting,"  is  of  common 
occurrence  in  closely  folded  rocks,  and  may  intro- 
duce many  complexities  into  the  structure.  There 
are  many  ways  in  which  rocks  may  be  broken 
and  pushed  over  each  other,  depending  chiefly  on 
the  position  of  the  plane  along  which  dislocation 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  247 

has  taken  place.  "Overthrust  faults"  are  those 
in  which  an  older  stratum  has  been  thrust  over  a 
younger  stratum.  Such  thrust  faults  are  usually 
exceedingly  difficult  to  identify  unless  detailed 
studies  have  been  made,  and  if  not  recognised 
may  lead  to  faulty  conclusions  as  to  the  strati- 
graphic  succession. 


Gneiss     !         Tanana     schists 
Archean?  !  Probablj' lower  Paleozoic 

I 


Gramite ' 

Metamorphosed  sedi-1 

ments. Probably  chieflyl 

S'Sg  I  lower  Paleozoic      I 

2  3'3 1  : 

If 

3^ 4pitale3 


GENERALISED  SECTION  THROUGH  ALASKA  RANGE  ALONG 
VALLEY  OF  CAXTWELL  RIVER 


NW 


;  t  g  c 
III 

Is  I 


Tordrillo  series  jSkwentna  complex 
Sandstone, ^aywacke,  i  Igneous  rocks, Unns, 
slate,  and  limestone       j  tuffs,  and  intrusives; 

Chuiny  Jurassic         I     Pre -Jurassic 


4QniS\p9 


GENERALISED  SECTION  ALASKA  RANGE  FROM  SKWENTNA  RIVER 
TO  KUSKOKWIM  RIVER 


While  traversing  the  Alaska  Range  Mr.  Prindle 
and  I  noted  many  examples  of  minor  faulting 
where  the  dislocation  varied  from  a  few  inches  to 


248  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

several  hundred  feet.  We  also  obtained  some 
evidence  of  more  extensive  faulting  with  throws 
which  may  amount  to  several  thousand  feet.  In 
the  absence  of  detailed  studies  these  larger  faults 
must  remain  to  a  large  extent  hypothetical.  Along 
the  inland  front  of  the  range  many  of  the  strata 
are  overturned  to  the  west,  and  here  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  more  or  less  overthrust  faulting 
has  taken  place.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
whole  of  the  west  front  of  the  range  is  determined 
by  a  series  of  extensive  overthrust  faults. 

Another  phase  of  disturbance  is  that  which 
accompanied  the  intrusion  of  the  large  masses 
of  igneous  rocks.  These  masses,  called  "stocks,'' 
composed  of  granite  rocks,  are  usually  of 
lenticular  outline  and  often  many  miles  in 
length.  Their  injection  necessarily  disturbed  the 
adjacent  sedimentary  beds.  While  the  meta- 
morphic  effect,  that  is  the  chemical  and  physical 
changes  brought  about  by  the  introduction  of 
large  masses  of  molten  magma,  appears  to  have 
been  very  localised,  yet  the  mechanical  effect  on 
the  adjacent  strata  was  considerable.  It  also 
appears  that  there  has  been  more  or  less  move- 
ment along  walls  which  bound  these  lenticular 
stocks,  since  the  magma  solidified  to  their  present 
form ;  in  other  words,  that  there  has  been  faulting 
along  these  margins.  Such  movements  probably 
in  part  account  for  the  fact  that  Mt.  McKinley 
and  Mt.  Foraker,  both  of  which  are  granite  masses, 
stand  so  high  above  the  crest  line  of  the  range. 

To  sum  up  briefly,  the  structure  of  the  Alaska 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  249 

Range  is  that  of  a  synclinorium  broken  by  many 
minor  and  probably  also  by  some  larger  faults. 
Thrust  faulting  has  taken  place  along  the  western 
arm  of  the  syncline,  probably  accompanied  by 
very  considerable  dislocation  of  strata,  measured 
in  thousands  of  feet  if  not  in  miles.  Some  of  the 
granitic  stocks  in  the  range  are  in  part  bounded 
by  faults  of  considerable  throw,  which  are  parallel 
to  the  larger  axis  of  the  intrusion. 

The  origin  of  such  deformation  is  usually  as- 
cribed to  tangential  movements  of  the  earth's 
crust  which  have  resolved  themselves  into  a  thrust 
from  one  general  direction.  This  tangential  press- 
ure probably  came  from  the  ocean  basin  and  acted 
against  the  continent.  That  is,  there  was  prob- 
ably a  land  mass  inland  of  the  present  range 
which  acted  as  a  buttress  and  against  which  the 
rocks  were  squeezed  by  a  thrust  from  the  Pacific. 
It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  this  disturb- 
ance was  not  confined  to  any  one  period  of  the 
past,  but  recurred  at  different  times  and  with 
varying  intensity. 

OUTLINE    OF   GEOLOGIC    HISTORY 

The  most  important  clues  to  the  age  of  geo- 
logic strata  are  the  remnants  of  organic  forms, 
which  are  preserved  in  them  as  fossils.  Using 
these  criteria  alone,  a  sketch  of  the  succession 
of  events  by  which  the  Alaska  Range  has  been 
formed  must  begin  with  the  deposition  of  the 
strata  in  which  Ordovician  fossils  are  known  to 


2  50  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

occur,  for  these  are  the  oldest  organic  remains 
yet  found  within  the  province.  It  is  known, 
however,  that,  even  long  before  that  distant  epoch 
in  geologic  time  termed  Ordovician,  deposition  of 
thousands  of  feet  of  sediments  and  volcanic  rocks, 
followed  by  folding,  intrus'on,  and  metamorphism, 
took  place.  The  metamorphic  rocks  of  this  older 
epoch,  exceedingly  difficult  to  differentiate  and 
classify,  even  where  they  occur  in  the  best  known 
parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  become  well-nigh  im- 
possible of  intelligible  description  and  discussion 
in  a  field  like  this,  much  of  which  has  not  been 
explored. 

Whatever  the  detailed  investigations  of  the 
future  may  bring  forth,  it  is  certain  that  there 
is  a  belt  of  highly  altered  rocks,  both  sedimentary 
and  igneous,  stretching  along  the  north-western 
front  of  the  Alaska  Range,  in  part  forming  a  series 
of  foothills,  in  part  buried  under  later  accumula- 
tions of  Tertiary  strata  or  recent  gravel  deposits. 
These  rocks,  first  laid  down  as  sand,  clay,  and 
mud,  were  later  deeply  buried  under  superimposed 
strata,  intruded  by  large  masses  of  igneous  rocks, 
and  then  intensely  squeezed.  These  agencies 
brought  about  a  complete  change,  amounting  in 
certain  cases  to  an  almost  entire  recrystallisation 
of  their  constituent  minerals.  While  there  is  no 
direct  evidence  of  the  age  of  these  rocks,  from 
what  is  known  of  similar  formations  in  adjacent 
areas  it  is  probable  that  they  were  deposited 
during  Cambrian  or  pre-Cambrian  times.  In 
any  event  the  dynamic  revolution  w^hich  altered 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  251 

them  took  place  before  the  deposition  of  the  rocks 
carrying  Ordovician  fossils.  In  the  foregoing 
table  these  mica  schists  and  intrusives  are,  there- 
fore, indicated  as  of  pre-Ordovician  age. 

Though  the  contact  relations  of  these  crystalline 
rocks  and  the  Ordovician  terranes  has  not  been 
established  by  field  observations,  they  are  with- 
out doubt  those  of  unconformity.  That  is, 
the  older  crystalline  rocks  were  folded  and  up- 
lifted above  the  sea  floor,  exposing  them  to 
erosion,  before  the  deposition  of  the  Ordovician 
terranes. 

Fine  sediments,  such  as  slates  and  limestones, 
characterise  the  Ordovician  deposits  throughout 
Alaska  so  far  as  recognised.  This  indicates 
that  they  were  laid  down  as  deep  sea  sediments, 
and  justifies  the  assumption  that  the  northern 
and  western  half  of  Alaska  was  beneath  the 
sea  during  Ordovician  times.  In  the  province 
here  discussed  the  only  evidence  of  life  during 
this  period  are  the  delicate  and  obscure  organ- 
isms called  graptolites. 

No  evidence  has  been  found  of  any  interruptions 
to  the  deep  sea  conditions,  during  the  succeeding 
epoch,  termed  Silurian  and  Devonian,  though  for  a 
time  the  character  of  the  sediments  was  different, 
inasmuch  as  cherty  or  argillaceous  deposits  domi- 
nated over  the  limestones.  In  middle  Devonian 
times  calcareous  sediments  again  dominated,  and 
the  sea  of  this  period  was  known  to  teem  with 
organic  life.  These  organisms,  now  preserved  as 
fossils,  are  in  part  mollusks  of  various  descriptions, 


2  52  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

in  part  corals,  the  latter  indicating  a  gradual 
shoaling  of  the  waters. 

The  succession  after  middle  Devonian  times 
again  becomes  obscure.  A  heavy  quartz  conglom- 
erate, believed  to  be  of  Carboniferous  age,  is  abun- 
dant along  the  western  front  of  the  range.  The 
deposition  of  this  probably  followed  a  period  of 
uplift  deformation  followed  by  erosion;  that  is, 
it  marks  an  unconformity.  If  these  facts  are 
correct  there  was  probably  a  land-mass  here  during 
late  Devonian  or  early  Carboniferous  times  which 
contributed  coarse  sediments.  As  shown,  however, 
in  the  table  of  sequence,  this  conglomerate  may 
be  older  than  the  fossiliferous  Devonian  limestone ; 
but,  in  any  event,  it  indicates  such  an  abrupt 
change  in  sedimentation  as  to  make  it  probable 
that  there  was  a  marked  change  of  physical 
conditions. 

In  the  Yentna  basin,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
range,  we  crossed  a  broad  belt  of  volcanic  rocks, 
with  which  were  associated  some  sediments, 
which  are  probably  of  Triassic  age.  This  group 
of  rocks  indicates  an  outburst  of  a  large  number 
of  volcanoes  whose  outpourings,  including  both 
lava  and  tuffs,  probably  in  part  submarine,  con- 
tinued until  many  thousand  feet  of  material  was 
piled  up.  Igneous  activity  finally  spent  itself, 
but  it  left  a  land  mass  above  water.  Erosion  then 
began  and  probably  continued  long  enough  to  bring 
about  the  levelling  of  the  more  rugged  features  of 
the  topography.  In  early  Jurassic  times  erosion 
was    interrupted   by   a   submergence,    and   conse- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  253 

quent  invasion  of  the  sea,  which  inaugurated  an 
epoch  of  sedimentation.  It  appears  from  the 
character  of  the  sediments,  which  are  chiefly 
slates,  sandstones,  and  conglomerates,  that  the 
sea  was  shallow,  and  that  there  was  a  near-by 
land  mass  which  furnished  the  material  laid  down 
in  the  strata.  The  thickness  of  these  strata 
amounts  to  many  thousand  feet,  and  the  fossil 
remains  show  that  in  part  these  rocks  were  laid 
down  during  Jurassic  times. 

The  close  of  this  period  of  deposition  was  marked 
by  one  of  the  recurrent  epochs  of  deformation. 
Gravels,  sands,  and  clays  became  conglomerates, 
sandstones,  and  slates,  which  in  turn  were  closely 
folded  and  faulted.  During  this  period  of  earth 
movements  large  masses  of  igneous  rocks  were 
injected  in  the  deep-seated  portions  of  the  earth's 
crust.  This  intrusion  was  a  part  of  one  of  the 
greatest  dynamic  evolutions  of  the  continent,  for 
it  was  then  that  the  great  intrusion  of  granite 
which  is  now  exposed  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  in 
the  Coast  Range  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska 
took  place.  It  also  appears  that  the  ore-bearing 
mineral  veins  of  south-eastern  Alaska  and  prob- 
ably of  other  regions  were  injected  during  or 
immediately  following  this  intrusion. 

The  sedimentary  terranes  in  the  Alaska  Range 
assigned  to  this  epoch  are  the  youngest  which 
suffered  any  considerable  metamorphism,  the 
latter  strata  probably  never  having  been  so  deeply 
buried,  or  so  closely  folded.  It  seems  probable 
that  at  the  close  of  this  eix)ch  there  was  a  con- 


2  54  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

siderable  part  of  what  is  now  Alaska  above  water, 
and  that  much  of  this  part  of  the  continent  had 
essentially  its  present  shore  line.  The  Aleutian 
chain  had  probably  not  been  uplifted,  however, 
and  the  sea  probably  washed  both  slopes  of  the 
Alaska  Range,  while  a  great  gulf  of  the  ocean 
occupied  the  lower  parts  of  the  Kuskokwim  and 
Yukon  basins. 

The  next  younger  group  of  sediments  com- 
prises sandstones  and  shales,  with  some  conglome- 
rates, occurring  along  the  north-west  flank  of  the 
mountains.  These  sediments  indicate  shallow- 
water  conditions,  as  do  also  some  lignitic  coal 
seams  associated  with  them.  Some  volcanic 
rocks  are  included  in  these  sediments.  These 
sediments  were  folded  and  elevated  above  the  sea 
probably  in  early  Tertiary  times,  and  then  in  a 
large  part  removed  by  erosion.  In  any  event, 
while  these  sediments  have  a  thickness  of  at 
least  two  thousand  feet,  they  now  occupy  only  a 
small  area  in  the  northern  part  of  the  field.  This 
group  of  rocks  is  the  youngest  which  has  been 
considerably  folded.  Though  the  beds  have  not 
been  highly  altered,  yet  they  stand  at  high  angles, 
and  their  structure  is  far  more  complex  than  a  later 
group  of  rocks  to  be  described.  It  appears,  then, 
that  the  last  extensive  period  of  deformation  took 
place  just  after  these  sediments  were  laid  down, 
and  that  all  subsequent  movements  were  of  the 
character  of  broad  uplifts  and  depressions,  which 
as  a  rule,  left  no  record  in  the  individual  strata. 
It  is  of  great  importance  to  determine  the  age  of 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  255 

this  last  great  period  of  crustal  disturbances,  but 
the  evidence  is  scant.  It  appears  probable  from 
analogues  in  adjacent  areas  that  it  falls  in  the 
early  Tertiary. 

The  last  wide-spread  epoch  of  deposition  is 
represented  by  some  loose  conglomerates,  friable 
sandstones,  and  shales,  together  with  some  lig- 
nite beds,  which  occur  in  widely  separated  areas 
throughout  the  province.  The  nature  of  these 
sediments  indicates  their  deposition  in  river  val- 
leys and  lakes  or  possibly,  in  part,  in  estuaries.  The 
epoch  of  deposition  which  they  mark  was  separated 
from  previous  epochs  by  a  long  period  of  erosion 
during  which  the  rugged  topography  inherited 
from  the  preceding  cycle  was  to  a  large  extent 
removed  and  land  reduced  to  a  lowland.  Across 
the  lowland  rivers  meandered,  and  probably  it  is 
their  deposits  which  are  preserved  in  the  sedi- 
ments described  above. 

In  middle  Tertiary  times  a  general  uplift  took 
place,  which  inaugurated  the  present  cycle  of 
erosion,  though  it  has  probably  been  interrupted 
by  some  minor  depressions.  This  uplift,  though 
intermittent,  finally  left  the  range  at  approxi- 
mately its  present  altitude.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  erosion  has  considerably 
reduced  the  relief.  This  movement  was  differ- 
ential and  the  highest  peaks,  such  as  Mt.  McKinley 
and  Mt.  Foraker,  were  probably  uplifted  far 
above  adjacent  parts  of  the  range.  Their  altitude 
is,  however  also  due  to  the  fact  that  these 
peaks   are  made  up   of   hard   granite   which   has 


256  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

resisted  the  agencies  of  erosion  more  than  the  as- 
sociated sediments. 

Though  a  minor  incident  in  the  geologic  history, 
the  glaciation  which  followed  this  uplift  has  played 
an  important  part  in  carving  out  the  present  topo- 
graphic forms.  During  the  glacial  epoch  the  Alas- 
ka Range,  as  well  as  the  other  highland  masses  of 
this  part  of  the  continent,  became  the  loci  of  ac- 
cumulations of  ice  and  snow  which  forced  them- 
selves out  into  the  lowlands  as  huge  ice-sheets,  low- 
ering the  valley  floors  over  which  they  passed.  On 
the  south  the  ice-sheet  filled  Cook  Inlet  and  dis- 
charged into  the  Pacific,  while  on  the  north  it  spread 
out  across  the  Tanana  Valley  and  into  the  Kuskok- 
•wim  basin.  These  glaciers  not  only  removed  the 
loose  material  over  which  they  swept,  but  in  many 
instances  ground  deep  channels  in  the  underly- 
ing rock  floor.  Finally,  for  reasons  not  well  un- 
derstood, the  ice  began  to  retreat,  and  as  it  re- 
trograded the  accompanying  floods  carried  vast 
amounts  of  debris,  and  deposited  it  as  great  sheets 
along  the  mountain  fronts  and  in  the  lowlands. 
The  fast  disappearing  remnants  of  these  greater 
ice-sheets  are  still  preserved  in  the  present  glaciers 
of  the  Alaska  Range.  As  the  amount  of  debris 
furnished  by  the  ice  decreased,  the  streams  began 
cutting  channels  in  these  gravel  sheets,  an  action 
which  was  accelerated  by  minor  uplifts  of  the 
land. 

The  retreat  of  the  ice  and  the  dissection  of  the 
gravel  deposits  left  the  topography  in  essentially 
its  present  form. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  257 

ECONOMIC     GEOLOGY 

It  will  not  be  possible  to  discuss  in  any  detail 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  province,  but  a  few 
general  notes  may  be  not  without  interest. 

Within  the  Alaska  Range  proper  no  economi- 
cally valuable  minerals  have  yet  been  discovered, 
nor  does  the  outlook  for  such  discovery  appear 
very  hopeful.  Placer  gold  has  been  found  in 
workable  deposits  in  the  Yentna  Basin  within  the 
foothills  along  the  southern  margins  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  some  auriferous  gravels,  but  not  of 
known  economic  importance,  are  also  known  to 
occur  along  some  of  the  other  westerly  tributaries 
of  the  Susitna.  Gold  placers  have  also  been  worked 
in  a  small  way  in  the  Kantishna.  These  placers 
lie  in  the  so-called  Kantishna  and  Bonnifield 
districts.  The  auriferous  gravels  that  have  been 
worked  both  south  and  north  of  the  mountains 
are  shallow  deposits  and  the  gold  is  found 
chiefly  on  bed  rock.  In  the  Yentna  district 
the  bed  rock  is  said  to  be  chiefly  slate,  probably 
of  Paleozoic  age,  while  in  the  Kantishna  dis- 
trict the  country  rock  is  chiefly  mica  schists  (pre- 
Ordovician)  similar  to  that  with  which  the  gold 
is  associated  in  the  Fairbanks  district.  Besides 
these  shallow  auriferous  deposits,  some  of  the 
heavier  gravel  beds  are  known  to  carry  a  little 
gold,  but  whether  it  is  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
yield  returns  by  any  of  the  improved  mining 
methods  must  be  left  to  the  future  to  determine. 

This  placer  gold  was  derived  from  the  quartz 


2  58  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

veins  or  mineralised  zones  in  the  country  rock  with 
which  it  is  associated.  The  presence  of  workable 
placers  does  not  necessarily  indicate  that  the  bed 
rock  source  of  the  gold  will  be  found  to  carry  suffi- 
cient values  to  yield  returns  on  exploitation.  For 
the  richness  of  the  placers  may  simply  be  the  re- 
sult of  long-continued  process  of  sorting  by  agencies 
of  weathering  and  erosion,  which  have  brought 
about  the  concentration  in  the  gravels  of  the 
heavier  minerals  separated  from  the  bed  rock. 

One  feature  of  the  geology  of  the  Alaska  Range 
is  favourable  to  the  occurrence  of  mineral  deposits, 
and  that  is  the  presence  of  the  granite  intrusives 
already  described  as  having  been  injected  in 
Jurassic  times,  for  it  is  known  that  in  other  parts 
of  Alaska  ore  bodies  are  found  in  close  association 
with  these  granite  stocks.  The  following  quota- 
tion ^  from  a  recent  report  bears  on  this 
question : 

"It  is  safe,  therefore,  to  assert  that  the  intru- 
sion of  the  Mesozoic  granite  in  many  parts  of 
Alaska  was  accompanied  or  followed  by  the  for- 
mation of  auriferous  veins.  It  is  important,  there- 
fore, to  draw  attention  to  the  distribution  of  this 
rock.  As  shown  by  Mr.  Wright,  it  not  only  forms 
the  major  portion  of  the  Coast  Range,  but  also 
finds  a  wide  distribution  in  isolated  stocks  among 
the  islands  to  the  west.  The  main  granite  mass 
passes  into  Canadian  territory  in  the  Chilkat  basin 
and  has  been  traced  northward  to  Kluane  Lake, 

>  Brooks,  Alfred  H.,  and  others.  Progress  Report.  Investigation 
of  Alaskan  Mineral  Resources.  Bull.  U.S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  314, 
1907,  p.  25.  . 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  259 

where,  too,  evidence  of  mineralisation  is  found. 
It  occurs  again  in  the  form  of  dikes  and  stocks 
along  the  northern  margin  of  the  Copper  River 
valleys  and  has  been  recognised  at  a  number  of 
places  in  the  Alaska  Range  to  the  south-west.'' 

The  above  theoretical  consideration  would  seem 
to  warrant  a  continuation  of  prospecting  along 
the  margins  of  these  granite  masses,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  associated  rock  so  far  as  examined 
appears  to  be  barren  of  any  ores. 

Coal  is  the  only  other  mineral  deposit  yet  found 
in  this  province.  Lignite  seams  are  not  uncommon 
associates  of  the  younger  sediments  of  the  region, 
but  most  of  these  have  only  a  very  remote  com- 
mercial importance.  The  lignites  of  the  upper 
Cantwell  River  are  probably  the  only  ones  which 
may  be  exploited  in  the  immediate  future  and 
that  only  because  they  lie  within  thirty  to  fifty 
miles  of  the  town  of  Fairbanks,  which  affords  a 
good  market  for  fuel.  The  lignites  of  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  range  can  probably  not  be  mined  at 
a  profit,  even  if  rendered  accessible  by  railway, 
because  they  would  come  into  competition  with 
the  high-grade  coals  of  the  Matanuska  field,  which 
lies  nearer  the  coast. 


APPENDIX  B. 

Biological  Data  and  Specimens  Collected  by 
Charles  Sheldon 

AT  about  the  same  time  that  the  south-eastern 
slopes  were  being  explored  by  us  with  the 
aid  of  our  horses,  Mr.  Charles  Sheldon  pushed  south- 
ward from  the  Tanana  River  along  the  Kantishna 
to  the  northern  slopes  of  Mt.  McKinley,  his  mission 
being  mainly  to  study  mountain  sheep.  He  had  but 
one  assistant  and  their  supplies  were  transported 
by  pack  horses.  After  leaving  Hanna  Glacier  a 
course  was  set  along  the  same  route  taken  by  our 
party  in  September,  1903.  The  grassy  slopes  above 
timber  at  an  altitude  of  from  three  thousand  to 
four  thousand  feet  offered  good  travelling.  Pass- 
ing Muldrow  Glacier  he  followed  Lecointe  River 
into  Dunn  Basin  where  mountain  sheep  in  great 
numbers  were  found.  Mr.  Sheldon  made  a  valu- 
able collection  of  mammals  which  he  presented 
to  the  Biological  Survey.  Descriptions  following 
are  by  Wilfred  H.  Osgood.— F.  A.  Cook.] 

STONES  CARIBOU 

Rangifcr  Stonci  Allen 

On  his  way  in  to   the   base   of   Mt.  McKinley 
about  the  middle  of  July,  Mr.  Sheldon  saw  many 

261 


262   TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

caribou,  but  it  was  then  too  early  to  secure  speci- 
mens with  perfect  antlers,  so  he  planned  to  get 
them  on  his  way  out,  but  on  the  return  trip  not  an 
adult  male  was  seen.  However,  he  secured  in 
Tanana  a  pair  of  locked  antlers  which  had  been 
found  near  the  head  of  the  Cosna  River.  These 
seem  referable  to  R.  Stonei.  One  of  them  has  a 
considerable  part  of  the  skull  attached,  including 
nearly  perfect  toothrows.  The  length  of  the 
toothrow  is  104  mm.  Measurements  of  the  antlers 
are,  respectively,  as  follows: 

Length  main  beam  (along  side)  1090,  1265; 
greatest  spread  between  palmations  710,  570; 
greatest  spread  between  bez  tines  645,  665 ;  circum- 
ference of  beam  between  brow  and  bez  tines  152, 
136;  number  of  points  in  palmations  10 — 8,  3 — 3; 
number  of  points  in  bez  tines  7 — 8,  4 — 3  ;  number 
of  points  in  brow  tines  7 — 4,  7 — i ;  total  number 
of  points  44,  21. 

ALASKA   MOOSE 
Alee  Americanus  Gigas  Miller 

A  few  moose  and  numerous  signs  were  seen  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  base  of  Mt.  McKinley  and 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Toklat,  but  no  specimens 
were  preserved.  They  are  abundant  throughout 
the  timbered  part  of  the  region,  to  which,  how- 
ever, they  are  not  confined,  as  they  frequently 
traverse  open  country. 

DALL  SHEEP.     WHITE  SHEEP 
Ovis  Dalli  Nelson 

Seven  specimens,  six  adult  males  and  one  (skull) 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  263 

adult  female,  taken  August  10-30.  Indefinite 
reports  have  been  current  to  some  extent  to  the 
effect  that  the  sheep  of  Mt.  McKinley  and  the 
Alaska  Range  were  larger  or  smaller  or  otherwise 
different  from  the  other  Alaskan  sheep.  Such 
reports  seem  to  be  groundless,  for  the  specimens 
are  identical  with  those  from  the  Kenai  Peninsula, 
referable  to  Ovis  Dalli.  The  skins  are  practically 
pure  white,  but  careful  search  reveals  a  very  few 
dusky  hairs  here  and  there  on  the  back  and  a  very 
small  and  mostly  concealed  proportion  of  them  on 
the  tail.  The  pelage  is  entirely  new  and  rather 
full  and  long  but  shows  considerable  brown  earth 
stain.  The  skulls  and  horns  do  not  appear  to  differ 
in  any  important  respect  from  those  of  typical  Ovis 
Dalli.  The  region  seems  to  be  a  great  stronghold 
of  the  white  sheep,  but  although  hundreds  of  ewes 
and  lambs  were  seen  almost  daily,  rams  were  found 
only  in  very  small  numbers  after  long  and  deter- 
mined hunting. 

RED  SQUIRREL 

Sciurus  Hudsonicus  Erxleben 

Common  in  all  the  timber. 

GROUND  SQUIRREL 
Citellus  Plesius  Ablusus  Osgood 

Eight  specimens,  mostly  adults,  from  the  base 
of  the  Muldrow  Glacier  and  the  head  of  the  Toklat 
River.  These  are  typical  examples  of  ablusus, 
and  thus  carry  its  range  considerably  to  the 
north-east,  the  nearest  point  from  which  it  was 
previously  known  being  the  head  of  Lake  Clark. 


2  64  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

HOARY  MARMOT 
Marmota  Caligata  (Eschscholtz) 

One  Specimen,  a  very  fine  old  female,  killed  on 
the  Peters  Glacier,  one  of  the  few  good  adults  of 
this  species  now  in  collections  from  the  interior 
of  Alaska. 

BEAVER 
Castor  Canadensis  Kuhl 

Of  rather  rare  occurrence,  in  interior  ponds  only. 
No  specimens. 

DAWSON   RED-BACKED  MOUSE 
Evotomys  Dawsoni  Merriam 

Two  Specimens,  both  from  the  wooded  region 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Toklat. 

ALPINE  VOLE 
Microtus  Miurus  Oreas  Subsp.  nov. 

Type,  from  head  of  Toklat  River,  Alaska  Range, 
Alaska.  No.  148,596  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
Biological  Survey  collection.  $  ad.  August  8, 
1906.     C.  Sheldon.     Original  No.  47. 

Characters. — Similar  to  M.  miurus,  but  tone  of 
colour  more  ochraceous  (not  so  yellowish)  through- 
out; tail  slightly  shorter  and  chiefly  ochraceous, 
slightly  or  not  at  all  darker  above  than  below. 

Colour. — ^Type,  in  worn  pelage:  Upperparts  and 
sides  pale  ochraceous  buff  or  clay  colour  somewhat 
toned  down  on  back  by  a  slight  mixture  of  dusky 
and  exposure  of  the  plumbeous  bases  of  the  hairs; 
underparts   uniform   pale   ochraceous   buff;    feet 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  265 

creamy  buff;  tail  pale  ochraceous  buff  with  very 
faint  traces  of  dusky  on  upper  side. 

Skull. — Very  similar  to  that  of  M.  miurus  but 
somewhat  narrower;  braincase  more  elongate; 
zygomata  less  flaring  anteriorly. 

Measurements. — Type  and  one  topotype,  respec- 
tively: Total  length,  125,  120;  tail  vertebrae,  20, 
19;  hind  foot  (dry),  19.2,  19.  Skull  of  type:  Basal 
length,  26.7;  basilar  length,  23.9;  mastoid  width, 
1 1.4;  interorbital  constriction,  3.4;  nasals,  7.4; 
maxillary  toothrow,  6. 

Remarks. — Seven  specimens  of  this  vole  were 
secured  in  the  high  mountain  meadows  near  the 
head  of  the  Toklat  River.  Two  of  these  are  adult 
males  and  the  remainder  immature,  but  the  entire 
series  is  characterised  by  a  richer  and  more  reddish 
colouration  than  that  of  typical  miurus,  of  which 
specimens  in  exactly  comparable  pelage  are  avail- 
able.^ The  tail  is  even  shorter  than  in  miurus 
and  with  little  or  no  dark  colour  on  the  upper  side. 
The  slight  cranial  characters  noted  above  may  not 
prove  constant.  The  form  doubtless  occurs 
throughout  the  higher  parts  of  the  Alaska  Range 
and  this  is  probably  the  extent  of  its  distribution, 
for  collecting  in  the  mountains  near  the  Yukon 
River  and  in  the  northern  Rockies  has  failed  to 
reveal  it  or  any  near  relative. 

Since  Mr.  Sheldon's  trapping  was  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  region  above  timber  line,  this  was  the 

'The  Biological  Survey  series  of  M.  miurus  being  quite  small, 
specimens  from  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  kindly 
loaned  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Allen,  have  also  been  used  for  comparison. 


2  66  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

only  species  of  Microtus  taken.  Some  or  all  of  the 
following  probably  occur  at  somewhat  lower 
altitudes  in  the  region:  M.  operarius,  M.  drum- 
mondi,  M.  mordax,  and  M.  xanthognathus. 

MUSKRAT 
Fiber  Spatulatus  Osgood 

Common  about  ponds  in  the  less  elevated  parts 
of  the  region. 

PORCUPINE 

Erethizon  Epixanthits  Myops  Merriam 

Occurs  throughout  the  timbered  part  of  the 
region.     No  specimens. 

COLLARED    PIKA 

Ochotona  Collaris  Nelson 

Five  specimens,  three  from  near  the  Peters 
Glacier,  taken  July  28th,  and  two  from  the  base 
of  the  Muldrow  Glacier,  taken  August  2d.  All 
are  typical  of  this  species,  which  doubtless  occurs 
in  suitable  places  on  all  the  high  mountains  of  the 
interior  of  Alaska.  Mr.  Sheldon  reports  that 
pikas  were  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  his  camps. 

BALL   VARYING  HARE 
Lepus  Americanus  Dalli  IMerriam 

Hares  were  seen  in  abundance  well  down  in  the 
timber  but  no  specimens  were  secured. 

CANADA    LYNX 

Lynx  Canadensis  (Kerr) 

Common  where  rabbits  are  to  be  found.  One 
was  killed  on  the  Tanana  River  but  was  not  pre- 
served as  a  specimen. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  267 


NORTHERN   WOLF 
Cams  Albus  (Sabine) 


Wolves  are  abundant,  chiefly  above  timber, 
where  many  tracks  were  found. 

FOX 

Vulpes  Fulvus  Subsp. 

Very  abundant,  especially  above  timber.  Sev- 
eral were  seen,  including  black  or  nearly  black 
individuals.      No  specimens. 

GRIZZLY   BEAR 
Ursus  Horribilis  Phaeonyx  Merriam 

Six  grizzlies  were  secured,  three  adult  females 
and  three  cubs,  the  latter  being  the  offspring  of  one 
mother.  They  show  much  variation  in  colour, 
especially  the  cubs,  one  of  which  is  very  pale, 
another  very  dark,  and  the  third  almost  exactly 
intermediate.  All  were  killed  high  up  on  the 
mountain  slopes  far  above  timber,  to  which  region 
they  seem  largely  confined.  The  name  "Glacier 
Bear"  is  locally  applied  to  light  coloured  examples 
of  this  grizzly. 

BLACK   BEAR 

Ursus  Americanus  Pallas 

A  black  bear  was  seen  on  the  Kantishna  River 
and  many  tracks  were  noted  in  various  parts 
of  the  timbered  region,  where  the  animals  are 
evidently  very  abundant. 

OTTER 
Lutra  Canadensis  (Schreber) 

Otters  occur  in  limited  numbers.     No  specimens. 


268  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

MINK 
Lutreola  Vison  subsp. 

Common.  Several  were  seen  along  the  Kan- 
tishna  and  Tanana  rivers  and  numerous  skins 
were  seen  in  the  possession  of  trappers  on  the 
Toklat. 

MARTEN 
Mustela  Americana  Actuosa  Osgood 

Common  throughout  the  timbered  part  of  the 
region.  Trappers'  skins  seen  on  the  Toklat  were 
noted  as  being  light  coloured  and  therefore  prob- 
ably represent  the  subspecies  actuosa. 

WOLVERINE 
Gulo  Luscus  (Linnaeus) 

Common  throughout  the  region,  except  in  the 
timberless  belt,  and  doubtless  also  to  be  found 
there.  Skins  were  seen  among  the  trappers  on 
the  Toklat. 

SHREW 

Sorex  sp. 

No  Specimens  of  shrews  were  secured,  but  that 
they  occur  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  remains 
of  one  were  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  bear.  Those 
of  probable  occurrence  are  Sorex  personatus  arcticus, 
S.  obscurus,  S.  tundrensis,  and  5.  eximius. 


APPENDIX  C 

The  Cook  Inlet  Aborigines 
by  charles   sheldon 

THE  aborigines  living  along  the  shores  of 
Cook  Inlet  and  the  Susitna  River  have  in 
their  veins  much  Russian  blood.  Originally  these 
were  the  Kodiaks,  Kenites,  Knicks,  and  Susitnas. 
These  tribes  were  usually  friendly  to  each  other 
and  united  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
Copper  River  Indians  and  the  Eskimos.  In  lan- 
guage, in  folk-lore,  and  in  their  implements  there  is 
considerable  similarity,  but  a  distinct  tribal  organ- 
isation has  been  maintained  with  a  chief,  a  second 
chief,  and  other  assistants.  The  combined  popu- 
lation of  all  the  existing  villages  is  about  three 
hundred,  but  when  the  Russians  first  came  to 
the  Inlet  they  found  on  the  bluff  about  the  present 
site  of  Tyonok  an  estimated  gathering  of  twenty 
thousand  Indians. 

Though  these  Indians  have  been  close  to  big 
game  areas,  where  bear,  moose,  mountain  sheep, 
and  caribou  were  abundant  they  never  have  been 
great  hunters,  mostly  because  fish  in  abundance 
have  been  too  easily  gotten.  By  judicious  use  of 
nets  they  have  been  able  to  obtain  in  a  few  weeks 

enough  salmon  to  supply  their  wants  for  a  year. 

269 


2  70  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

The  fish  is  dried  and  smoked  and  packed  in  caches 
elevated  on  spikes  where  the  larder  is  out  of 
reach  of  the  dogs  and  wolves  and  bears.  Thus 
subsisting  on  fish  their  primitive  life  was  easy,  but 
with  the  advent  of  the  Caucasian  their  troubles 
increased  rapidly.  A  market  was  found  for  their 
skins,  an  appetite  was  created  for  bread,  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  other  things.  A  fashion  was  set  for 
clothes  and  the  hunter  was  forced  to  work  over- 
time to  supply  the  new  wants. 

It  is  to-day  a  very  difficult  task  to  separate 
the  different  tribes  whose  hybrid  descendants  have 
intermingled  to  form  the  sad  groups  that  remain 
as  Cook  Inlet  aborigines.  The  intermarriages 
/have  always  been  to  near  relatives;  first  cousins 
are  commonly  married.  In  the  old  days  there 
was  a  certain  amount  of  wife  stealing.  One  tribe 
would  descend  on  another,  destroying  the  men 
and  capturing  the  women  and  children;  thus  there 
was  much  admixture  of  blood.  But  since  the 
time  of  the  Russians  this  has  not  been  permitted. 
Russians,  however,  have  freely  married  Indian  wo- 
men, and  have  gone  away  later  and  left  half-breed 
families.  Miners  and  traders  have  done  likewise. 
Some  have  remained,  others,  tired  of  their  sur- 
roundings, went  away.  In  either  case  the  effect 
has  been  to  distribute  Caucasian  blood  among 
aborigines  that  at  least  have  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  Mongolian  stem.  The  result  of  all  this 
has  been  to  scatter  various  types  of  men  in  Alaska. 
There  are  the  Eskimo  Indians,  the  Russian  Indians, 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  271 

the  Mongolian  Indians,  and  the  various  inde- 
scribable shades  of  colour  and  degrees  of  blood 
admixture. 

The  necessity  to  make  alliance  to  protect  them- 
selves from  the  Eskimos  and  the  Copper  River 
Indians  or  the  whites  has  long  since  passed.  The 
rapid  extermination  of  these  primitive  people  is 
not  to  be  ascribed  so  much  to  alcohol,  bad  habits, 
and  civilised  sins  as  is  generally  supposed,  but  to 
virulent  epidemics  of  imported  disease. 

The  death -knell  of  these  Indians,  as  of  most  of 
the  aborigines  of  the  world  thus  far,  has  been  the 
introduction  of  new  disease  germs  to  which  the 
vigorous  savage  was  an  easy  victim  because  his 
red  blood  was  not  charged  by  the  protective  serum 
which  ages  of  misfortune  have  left  us  as  a  heritage. 

The  most  fatal  element  has  been  the  rapid 
introduction  of  diseases  of  childhood.  For  cent- 
uries we  have  unconsciously  developed  a  kind 
of  mild  immunity  to  measles,  scarlet  fever, 
whooping  cough,  and  other  children's  diseases 
which  has  enabled  us  to  withstand  epidemics. 
But  these  diseases  were  new  to  the  Indian.  Old 
and  young  are  carried  away  so  rapidly  that  few 
tribes  ever  survive  a  prolonged  wave  of  this  type 
of  maladies,  which  to  us  would  be  of  little 
consequence. 

The  Susitna  Indians  place  the  origin  of  man 
near  Mt.  McKinley,  and  the  raven  as  the  creator. 
At  a  point  along  Indian  Creek  Pass  from  which 
the  Susitna  and  Chulitna  valleys  can  be  seen, 


2  72  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

and  the  great  slopes  of  Bolshoy  pierce  the  clouds, 
the  big  peak  marks  the  beginning  of  the  world ; 
here  man  first  began  his  existence,  and  from  here 
he  spread  to  the  utmost  reaches  of  the  earth; 
the  Kenites,  the  Alouts,  the  Copper  River  tribe, 
the  Kodiaks,  and  others  are  but  offshoots  of  the 
original  parent  stem  made  by  the  raven  near  Mt. 
McKinley.  The  Indian  seldom  tells  this  in  these 
days,  but  a  miner  asked  one  about  a  lot  of  sus- 
spicious  bones  and  bits  of  skin  which  he  saw  at 
Indian  Creek  and  he  was  promptly  told  that  here 
even  to  this  day  the  raven  made  Indians,  and 
that  these  bones  were  the  leavings.  The  raven 
selected  bones  from  other  animals,  shaped  them 
for  the  type  of  man  he  wished  to  make,  then  put 
on  the  soft  part  and  the  skin  last.  An  Indian 
will  not  visit  this  workshop  of  the  raven. 

The  children  are  put  through  a  very  severe 
course  of  training  to  fit  them  for  the  duties  of 
later  life.  At  the  age  of  six  the  boy  is  turned 
over  to  one  of  his  uncles  for  his  first  schooling. 
Little  sleep  or  food  is  allow^ed  the  child,  and  he  is 
kept  busy  at  hard  work.  Cold  water  is  thrown 
/over  the  boy  to  harden  his  muscles,  beginning  at 
his  feet  and  gradually  increasing  the  splashing  to  . 
his  head  by  regular  stages  with  advancing  years. 
At  about  ten  years  he  is  thrown  into  cold  deep 
water  and  forced  to  learn  how  to  swim.  He  sleeps 
on  the  floor  with  little  or  no  covering,  is  made  to 
go  out  in  winter  without  clothing  to  cut  wood, 
and  in  many  ways  the  boy  is  forced  to  endure 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  273 

hardships  with  a  view  of  an  ultimate  development 
of  physical  strength  and  powers  of  endurance. 

Girls  are  compelled  to  undergo  a  less  severe  train- 
ing to  fit  them  to  domestic  duties,  but  they  are 
kept  under  close  watch.  After  twelve  years  they 
are  not  allowed  to  leave  their  homes  alone. 

In  the  qualifications  for  marriage,  the  young 
man  must  have  proven  his  ability  to  hunt  and 
fish.  He  must  also  have  shown  a  faculty  to  de- 
vise implements  of  the  chase.  Men  usually  marry 
when  about  twenty  years  old  and  as  many  times 
thereafter  as  they  can  steal  women  from  neigh- 
bouring tribes,  the  supplementary  wives  becoming 
slaves.  The  girls  were  marriageable  at  sixteen 
years.  There  was  no  visible  courtship.  The 
young  man  asked  the  father  of  his  prospective 
bride.  When  his  consent  was  given  a  big  as- 
semblage of  the  relatives  and  friends  of  both  sides 
was  called.  At  the  meeting  two  men  were  selected 
to  give  away  the  couple,  and  to  deliver  orations 
on  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  coming 
union  to  the  tribe  and  to  the  respective  families. 
Then  followed  much  other  talk  bearing  on  the 
subject  introduced  by  the  speakers.  The  boy 
was  presented  first  to  the  bride  and  then  the  girl 
to  him.  They  met  on  a  caribou  skin  and  in  the 
presence  of  all  were  acknowledged  as  man  and 
wife.  Then  followed  a  great  feast  with  hilarity, 
singing,  and  dancing.  Some  presents  were  made 
to  the  parents  of  the  girl  and  the  new  couple 
assumed  the  responsibility  of  helping  their  parents 


2  74  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

on  both  sides  in  case  of  need,  but  the  wife's  family 
fared  best. 

The  older  chiefs  have  always  had  special  priv- 
ileges and  like  many  old  men  they  have  a  special 
fondness  for  young  girls.  Thus  it  is  not  an  un- 
common sight  to  see  a  very  old  man  with  a  very 
young  wife.  The  preliminary  arrangements  for 
these  young  wives  take  on  the  form  of  barter.  An 
old  chief  sees  a  girl  he  admires  and  while  his  old 
spouse  is  still  living  and  with  her  knowledge 
and  consent  he  bargains  for  the  girl  as  his  future 
wife.  The  girl  may  be  a  mere  child  or  she  may 
be  near  marriageable  age.  For  consideration  the 
chief  usually  agrees  to  protect  or  help  in  some 
way  the  parents.  This  may  be  material  assistance, 
food  or  implements,  or  it  may  be  spiritual  help 
to  assure  good  luck  on  the  hunt,  to  dispel  an  evil 
spirit,  or  it  may  be  protection  against  an  enemy. 
The  girl  in  barter  spends  her  time  between  the  two 
houses,  and  gets  her  education  accordingly.  The 
saddest  type  of  this  barter  was  that  of  an  old 
blind  chief;  he  had  been  blind  for  a  long  time, 
and  he  was  anxious  for  a  partner  with  a  similar 
distress.  He  secured  a  young  girl,  pierced  her 
eyes  when  very  young,  and  then  trained  her  to 
become  his  helpmeet. 

For  shelter  skin  tents  have  always  been  in  use. 
During  the  stone  age  a  house  of  wood  and  sod 
similar  to  the  Eskimo  igloo  was  in  use,  but  since 
the  time  of  the  Russians  and  iron  implements  a 
big  log  hut,  or  barabra,  has  been  generally  adopted. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  275 

The  barabras  now  at  Kroto  and  other  places  are 
about  eighteen  feet  square,  constructed  of  logs,  with 
gable  roof  in  which  a  big  slit  is  left  in  the  centre  for 
smoke  to  escape,  and  long  fireplaces  on  the  floor  to 
one  side.  Originally  there  were  raised  floors  like 
that  of  the  Eskimo  hut  with  people  sleeping  above 
and  below,  on  skins  or  brush.  Several  families 
lived  in  one  of  these  barabras  and  they  were  in  for- 
mer times  made  much  larger.  An  indispensable  an- 
nex was  the  banyel,  or  bath  house ;  a  place  of  about 
the  same  shape  as  the  barabra,  with  a  window  of 
bear  intestine  in  one  corner.  There  was  a  pile 
of  round  stones,  preferably  not  too  large.  These 
were  heated  on  burning  logs  in  the  barabra  and 
piled  up.  Men,  women,  and  children  would  go 
into  the  banyel,  some  one  would  splash  water  with 
bunches  of  brush  upon  the  hot  stones,  and  with  a 
hiss  from  the  stones  and  a  yell  from  the  people 
the  room  would  be  filled  with  steam.  When 
thoroughly  warmed  and  heated,  some  one  would 
take  the  bunches  of  brush  and  vigorously  strike 
his  neighbour;  thus  a  strong  perspiration  was 
produced  which  was  their  remedy  for  all  diseases. 

The  original  implements  of  the  chase  and  the 
knowledge  of  them  have  passed  away  with  the  old 
aborigines.  The  same  is  true  of  most  of  the  arts 
of  life.  For  transportation  the  dog  sled  and  the 
bark  or  skin  canoe  are  to-day  in  use,  but  the  bow 
and  arrow,  the  lance,  and  the  old  fishing  nets  and 
baskets  are  seldom  used. 

Girls  had  their  faces  ornamented    with   tattoo 


276  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

marks  when  they  were  about  ten  years  old.  The 
ink  was  made  from  rotten  birch  wood.  There- 
after the  girls  were  carefully  guarded  by  their 
mothers,  never  being  allowed  away  from  home 
alone.  A  non-virtuous  girl  was  deprived  of  her 
home  and  became  an  outcast. 

Among  the  men  a  line  of  distinction  was  painted 
on  the  face.  The  colour  was  red  and  black.  The 
red  paint  was  made  of  burnt  rock  and  the  black 
of  burnt  clay. 


f^eJ 


/O^IV'^*^ 


A  good 

Bad  man. 

Good  wise  man. 

A  rich  man. 

trustworthy 

Fearless, 

A  successful 

man. 

Daring. 

hunter. 

The  Cook  Inlet  people  in  the  pre-Russian  times 
burned  their  dead.  Logs  were  cut  in  appropriate 
sizes  and  piled  in  tiers  in  such  a  way  that  a  draft 
ran  upwards  directing  the  fire.  The  body  was 
placed  on  the  logs  face  upwards  or  in  a  sitting 
position.  Friends  took  turns  in  piercing  the 
abdomen  with  sharp  sticks  to  allow  the  spirits  to 
escape,  and  a  good  deal  of  attention  was  required 
to  keep  the  fire  hot,  for  the  freedom  and  rapidity 
with  which  a  body  burned  was  supposed  to  be 
an  indication  of  the  favour  in  which  the  departed 
was  rated  by  their  supreme  spirit,  Nah-cri-tah-n}^ 
The  ashes  were  gathered,  placed  in  a  box,  and 
stored  in  a  comer  of  the  provision  shack.     For  one 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  277 

year  the  near  relatives  mourned  by  chanting 
doleful  songs. 

In  the  case  of  the  death  of  a  beloved  wife,  the 
husband  would  cut  slits  in  his  skin  along  the  front 
of  his  arm  and  draw  through  the  wound  eagle's 
feathers,  moving  the  feathers  occasionally,  and 
thus  keeping  the  wound  open  for  one  year. 

One  year  after  a  man's  death  the  nearest  rela- 
tives called  a  meeting  of  all  of  those  known  to  have 
had  dealings  with  the  deceased  during  life,  and 
to  thern  in  the  presence  of  a  large  gathering,  all 
of  the  personal  belongings  were  distributed  as 
presents,  as  well  as  much  new  material  donated 
by  relatives.  After  this  the  name  of  the  departed 
was  not  mentioned  and  he  was  forgotten. 

In  the  spirit  world  they  place  one  supreme 
being  named  Nah-cri-tah-ny,  who  is  regarded  as 
the  maker  and  creator  of  all  things.  There  are 
many  lesser  spirits  under  the  direction  of  the  great 
spirit.  Among  these  is  the  god  of  the  lakes,  and 
the  god  of  the  mountains.  The  lake  god  assumes 
the  form  of  a  big  fish  and  he  is  supposed  to  be 
destructive,  inflicting  punishment  upon  evil-doers 
and  destroying  those  who  disturb  him  in  his 
haunts.  The  mountain  god  is  regarded  as  a  pro- 
tector, helping  the  Indian  in  his  troubles  and 
guiding  him  to  good  hunting  and  fishing  grounds. 
If  an  Indian  ventures  into  the  high  mountains 
and  appeals  to  the  spirit,  he  is  supposed  to  be 
received  cordially  and  is  given  direct  advice  for 
his  future  conduct. 


APPENDIX  D 

Railway  Routes  in  Alaska* 
by  alfred  h.  brooks  ** 

TRANSPORTATION  is  the  first  essential 
element  to  the  industrial  advancement  of 
a  new  land.  Therefore,  though  the  subject  of 
railway  location  may  be  of  no  great  academic 
interest,  there  lies  a  justification  for  its  discussion 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  of  such  vital  importance  to 
those  who  are  developing  the  resources  of  Alaska, 
Moreover,  the  matter  is  timely  because  of  its  rela- 
tion to  a  broad  question  of  public  policy,  for  many 
efforts  have  been  made  in  recent  years  to  obtain 
financial  support  from  the  federal  government  for 
Alaskan  railway  projects. 

Popular  interest  in  this  subject  appears  to  be 
only  excelled  by  popular  ignorance  of  it — an  ig- 
norance, too,  which  is  constantly  being  augmented 
by  misstatements  in  current  literature.  Some 
years  ago  the  assertion  was  made  in  a  magazine 
article  that  some  parts  of  Alaska  were  being  rapidly 
gridironed  by  railways.     To  those  familiar  with 

♦Reprinted  by  special  permission.  Copyright,  1907.  by  The  National  Geo- 
graphic Magazine. 

**  Geologist  in  charge  of  Alaskan  Division,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

279 


2  8o  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  primitive  condition  of  transportation  main- 
taining throughout  the  territory,  such  a  state- 
ment can  appear  little  short  of  ridiculous.  This 
misleading  article  has,  however,  evidently  been 
regarded  as  authoritative,  for  it  has  found  place 
in  a  popular  encyclopaedia. 

Though  the  aggregate  mileage  of  railways  in 
Alaska  is  less  than  200,  but  little  more  than  that 
of  Porto  Rico,  this  is  divided  among  eight  different 
lines.  Of  these,  four  are  along  the  Pacific  sea- 
board, three  on  the  Seward  Peninsula,  and  one  in 
the  Tanana  Valley.  All  of  these  railways  have 
been  built  to  supplement  water  transportation. 
(See  map,  page  281.) 

RAILWAY   LOCATION 

In  the  discussion  to  follow  of  the  principles 
governing  railway  location,  I  will  confine  myself 
entirely  to  commercial  lines,  for  obviously  railways 
built  for  military  or  scenic  purposes  will  follow 
routes  determined  by  entirely  different  conditions. 

The  controlling  factors  of  railway  location  fall 
into  two  important  groups,  here  termed  (i)  com- 
mercial and  (2)  geographic,  while  in  regions  lying 
close  to  international  boundaries  a  third,  namely, 
political,  becomes  operative.  Each  of  the  first 
two  groups  resolves  itself  into  several  subordinate 
factors,  one  or  more  of  which  may  dominate  in  any 
given  province,  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  all 
the  others.     The  following  table  is  an  attempt  to 


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282  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

present  a  terse  analysis  of  the  problem  of  railway 
location : 

I.  Commercial  control: 

1.  Developed  resources  (statistics  of  production  and  commerce). 

2.  Undeveloped  resources. 

Mineral  (economic  geology). 
Agricultural  (climate,  soils,  and  botany). 
Timber  (distribution,  quality,  and  quantity). 

3.  Population. 

4.  Competitive    or    supplementary    lines    of    transportation 

(navigable  waters  and  existing  railways). 

II.  Geographic  control: 

1.  Position  (terminals  and  connecting  lines  of  transportation). 

2.  Distances  (comparison  of  distances  of  different  routes). 

3.  Relief  (mountain  ranges,  passes,  and  valleys,  as  aSecting 

gradients). 

4.  Watercourses   (depths  and  widths  of  rivers,   as  afifecting 

construction  of  bridges  or  ferries). 

5.  Climate  (precipitation,  etc.,  as  affecting  cost  of  construction, 

operation,  and  maintenance). 

III.  Political  control: 

I.  Political  boundaries. 

Before  analysing  this  table  I  will  forestall 
possible  criticism  by  stating  that  certain  elements 
which  must  of  necessity  have  an  important  in- 
fluence with  a  locating  engineer  are  here  entirely 
omitted  because  they  do  not  appear  to  be  germane 
to  the  subject.  In  this  I  refer  more  specially  to 
the  financial  backing  to  any  given  project.  Ob- 
viously the  choice  of  a  railway  route  may  have  to 
be  governed  by  the  low  cost  of  first  construction 
rather  than  by  consideration  of  the  ultimate  econ- 
omy in  construction,  operation,  and  maintenance. 
I  believe,  however,  that  the  question  of  financing 
a  railway  project  should  find  no  place  in  a  sci- 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  283 

entific  discussion  of  railway  location.  The  avail- 
able sources  of  material  for  construction  have  also 
not  been  included  in  this  analysis,  for  this  is, 
after  all,  a  local  problem  and  will  not  affect  the 
general  choice  of  routes. 

What  I  have  termed  commercial  control  is  sim- 
ply another  name  for  tonnage,  the  great  dominat- 
ing element  in  railway  location.  This,  in  turn,  is 
dependent  in  a  large  measure  on  resources,  de- 
veloped or  undeveloped.  In  settled  regions  the 
distribution  of  population  may  wield  a  decided 
influence,  but  population  again  is  usually  an 
evidence  of  developed  resources.  The  amount 
of  tonnage  will  also  be  affected  by  competitive 
and  supplementary  lines  of  transportation. 

Five  subdivisions  are  recognised  under  geo- 
graphic control.  The  first  is  position,  which 
pertains  chiefly  to  location  and  character  of  ter- 
minals and  their  relation  to  other  transportation 
systems.  Under  the  second,  distances,  the  dif- 
ferent routes  are  compared  in  length.  Under  re- 
lief is  included  the  influence  of  topography,  while 
larger  water-courses  must  be  considered  because 
they  necessitate  bridges  or  ferries.  The  influence 
of  climate  on  cost  of  construction,  operation,  and 
maintenance  is  obvious.  Heavy  snowfalls,  river 
floods,  and  the  closing  of  waterways  by  winter 
ice  are  elements  that  deserve  consideration.  Po- 
litical control  obviously  refers  to  international 
boundaries  alone. 

I  have  intentionally  emphasised  the  commercial 


284  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

control  of  railway  routes,  for  it  is  evident  that 
without  adequate  tonnage  railways  cannot  be 
built  economically.  On  the  other  hand,  given 
the  resources  to  warrant  the  cost  of  construc- 
tion and  operation,  and  the  modem  engineer  will 
build  a  railway  almost  anywhere.  In  this  I  do 
not  intend  to  indorse  the  policy,  too  often  followed, 
of  railway  location  which  is  not  preceded  by 
comprehensive  geographic  investigation.  Many 
railways  have  been  based  on  routes  chosen  by 
the  old  adage:  "The  Indian  followed  the  buffalo, 
the  white  man  the  Indian,  and  the  locomotive 
the  white  man."  As  a  consequence,  nearly  every 
transcontinental  line  has  made  or  is  contemplating 
changes  of  routes  involving  the  expenditure  of 
millions  of  dollars  which  might  have  been  avoided 
by  proper  exploration  and  survey.  The  lesson  has 
not  yet  been  learned,  however,  for  recently  a  cor- 
poration proposing  to  build  a  railway  in  Alaska, 
after  spending  several  hundred  thousand  dollars 
in  construction,  abandoned  the  chosen  route  for 
another.  In  this  case  a  tenth  part  of  the  money 
spent  on  what  proved  to  be  worthless  construction 
would  have  more  than  paid  for  the  necessary  ex- 
plorations and  surveys. 

It  follows  from  the  above  that,  while  the  demand 
for  transportation  between  certain  localities  may 
be  such  that  a  railway  will  be  built  in  spite  of 
the  physical  obstacles,  yet  economic  location  de- 
mands the  most  careful  adjustment  to  the  topo- 
graphy. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  285 

COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

Though  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to 
discuss  the  more  purely  engineering  aspect  of  my 
subject,  yet  it  may  be  well  to  devote  a  few  words 
to  the  question  of  the  cost  of  construction  be- 
cause of  the  many  current  misconceptions  regard- 
ing it.     It  will  be  pointed  out  below  that  the 
watersheds  to  be  crossed  by  Alaskan  railways  vary 
from  about  2,000  to  3,400  feet,  which    are   low 
compared  with  the  altitudes  of   8,000  to  11,000 
feet  attained  by  many  railways  in  the  Western 
States.    It  will  also  be  shown  that  the  routes  of  ap- 
proach to  the  divides  have  as  a  rule  low  gradients, 
and  that  much  of  the  region  to  be  traversed  by 
railways  is  one  of  only  moderate  relief.     On  the 
other  hand,  most  of  the  proposed  routes  will  de- 
mand bridging  of  many  streams  and  rivers.     This 
feature  will  possibly  be  the  most  difficult  for  the 
engineer  to  contend  with,  because  of  (i)  the  winter 
ice  and  (2)  the  spring  floods.    (See  profiles,  p.  286.) 

The  chief  factor  which  will  much  enhance  the 
expenditures  for  railway  construction  in  Alaska 
is  the  distance  of  the  coastal  terminal  to  the 
centres  of  population,  for  this  increases  the  cost 
of  all  labour  and  materials.  Shortness  of  the 
summer  season  and  adverse  climatic  conditions  will 
also  enhance  the  cost.  It  has  been  estimated  by  a 
competent  engineer  that  the  same  class  of  con- 
struction will  cost  75  to  100  per  cent,  more  in 
Alaska  than  in  the  Western  States.      The  same 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  287 

engineer  has  stated  to  the  writer  that  in  many 
parts  of  the  interior,  where  valleys  and  rolling 
uplands  are  followed,  the  cost  of  a  standard-gauge 
railway  will  probably  not  exceed  $30,000  per  mile, 
but  through  the  coastal  mountain  ranges  may 
be  more  than  twice  as  great.  Where  detailed 
surveys  and  estimates  are  wanting,  it  will  probably 
be  safe  to  count  on  an  average  cost  of  at  least 
$35,000  per  mile  for  a  standard-gauge  railway  from 
the  Gulf  of  Alaska  to  the  Yukon. 


RESOURCES  TO  BE  DEVELOPED 

It  is  evident  that  a  discussion  of  railway  routes 
must  consider  the  resources  of  the  territory  as  well 
as  its  physical  features;  that  is,  on  one  hand  the 
possibilities  of  traffic  must  be  discussed;  on  the 
other,  the  routes  of  approach.  The  question  of 
traffic  again  resolves  itself  into  statistics  of  existing 
commerce  and  the  foreshadowing  of  that  to  come 
from  undeveloped  resources. 

In  Alaska  the  problem  is  simplified  by  the  fact 
that  the  immediately  available  resources  to  be 
developed  by  railway  construction  are  all  of  a 
mineral  character.  I  do  not  by  this  mean  to 
decry  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  certain  parts 
of  the  territory,  but  I  do  believe  that  these  may 
be  almost  neglected  in  the  present  discussion,  for 
the  reason  that  these  arable  lands  are  too  remote 
from  centres  of  population  to  yet  compete  with 


288  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  more  accessible  and  fertile  lands  in  the  States. 
The  capitalists  will  certainly  look  to  the  mines  of 
precious  metals  and  of  coal  to  recoup  themselves 
for  outlays  on  railway  construction.  With  the 
mining  development  some  agricultural  progress 
will  unquestionably  be  made  and  eventually  be 
a  source  of  traffic  for  the  road.  There  is  no  timber 
for  export  except  along  the  Pacific  seaboard.  In 
fact,  much  lumber  is  annually  taken  into  the  in- 
terior, and  this  consumption  is  likely  to  become 
greater,  if  the  present  ravages  by  forest  fires  in 
the  Yukon  Basin  continue. 

Mineral  Wealth 

The  discussion  of  resources  to  be  developed 
by  railways,  therefore,  resolves  itself  into  a  con- 
sideration of  the  mineral  wealth  and  its  distribu- 
tion. In  other  words,  it  is  a  geologic  problem. 
Though  the  basal  facts  are  very  incomplete,  yet 
some  salient  features  of  the  economic  geology 
are  known,  and  these  bear  directly  on  the  problem 
of  mineral  resources.  It  is  not  my  purpose  to 
describe  the  geology  of  the  Territory,  but  I  will 
call  your  attention  to  the  distribution  of  certain 
terranes  which  carry  minerals  of  economic  value. 
The  rocks  grouped  together  as  undiflEerentiated 
Paleozoic,  including  the  gold-bearing  horizons, 
occur  in  three  belts,  one  running  parallel  to  the 
Pacific  seaboard,  a  second  lying  centrally  in  the 


290  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Yukon  province,  and  a  third  forming  the  country 
rock  of  the  major  part  of  the  Seward  Peninsula 
(see  map,  p.  289).  Of  the  $100,000,000  which 
represents  in  round  numbers  the  total  mineral 
production  of  Alaska,  over  98  per  cent,  has  been 


Copyright,  1907,  by  the  National  Geographic  Magazine 


taken  from  areas  underlain  by  these  rocks.  In 
south-eastern  Alaska  there  is  a  well-defined  con- 
tact between  a  broad  belt  of  intrusives  and  these 
metamorphic  terranes,  and  this  has  been  proved 
to  be  the  general  locus  of  auriferous  lodes.  It 
should  be  noted  that  the  northern  extension  of  this 
contact  lies  in  a  little-known  region,  as  will  be 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  291 

shown  later ;  it  is  close  to  one  of  the  proposed  rail- 
way routes  into  the  interior.  Another  fact  bear- 
ing on  the  mineral  resources  can  be  interpreted  in 
terms  of  geology.  On  either  side  of  the  Wrangell 
Mountains  is  a  belt  of  Devonian  rocks  which  are 
copper-bearing  (see  map,  page  290).  These  are, 
indeed,  the  outcrops  of  the  same  terrane  along  two 
areas  of  a  syncline  and  form  the  objective  points 
of  several  railway  projects. 

The  map  on  page  289  shows  the  distribution  of 
the  auriferous  terranes  of  the  territory  so  far  as 
determined.  It  emphasises  the  fact  that  there  is 
an  extensive  gold-bearing  area  lying  well  within 
the  heart  of  the  Territory  and  400  to  500  miles 
from  tidewater. 

The  total  area  of  the  known  coal-bearing  rocks 
in  Alaska  is  approximately  12,000  square  miles.* 
Unfortunately,  much  of  the  coal  in  the  northern 
province  is  of  a  lignitic  character,  and,  though  it 
will  eventually  find  local  use,  cannot  now  be  re- 
garded as  an  important  source  of  tonnage  for 
railways.  There  are  two  coal  fields,  however,  the 
Controller  Bay  and  Matanuska,  aggregating  at 
least  120  square  miles,  which  carry  high-grade 
bituminous  and  some  semi-anthracite  coal.  This 
coal  is  superior  to  any  mined  on  the  Pacific  sea- 
board of  the  continent  and  is  suitable  for  metal- 
lurgical purposes.  Both  fields  are  objective  points 
of  railways  now  under  construction,  and  are  ex- 
pected to  furnish  local  tonnage  for  these  roads, 

*  See  map,  page  296. 


292  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

to  be  eventually  extended  into  the  interior.  Bitu- 
minous coals  also  occur  on  the  Yukon  and  at  Cape 
Lisbume,  on  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Only  the  copper  deposits  of  the  inland  region 
are  important  to  this  discussion,  and  these  include 
two  different  districts  lying  north  and  south  of  the 
Wrangell  Mountains,  on  the  two  arms  of  a  syncline 
(see  map,  page  290).  The  southern  belt,  to  which 
a  railway  is  being  built,  has  been  sufficiently  de- 
veloped to  indicate  a  large  tonnage. 

Agricultural  Possibilities 

I  have  shown  that  the  resources  which  promise 
to  yield  a  tonnage  are  gold,  copper,  and  coal.  The 
forests,  except  along  the  seaboard,  have  no  value 
for  export.*  Inland  the  heavy  timber,  of  which 
the  largest  trees  are  not  over  two  feet  in  diameter, 
is  closely  limited  to  the  river  courses.  Though 
there  are  sawmills  in  every  placer  camp  of  the 
Yukon,  that  these  do  not  even  supply  the  local 
demand  is  made  evident  by  the  fact  that  in  1905 
upward  of  $30,000  worth  of  lumber  was  brought  to 
the  Yukon  from  Puget  Sound.  The  timber  map 
can  also  be  used  to  indicate  the  general  distribution 
of  arable  lands,  for  the  areas  marked  as  timber 
embrace  practically  all  the  lands  which  may  possess 
future  agricultural  value.  A  region  lying  adjacent 
to  and  north  of  Cook  Inlet  appears  to  be  best 
adapted  for  agriculture,  but  in  the  Copper  and 

*  See  map,  page  293. 


294  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

Tanana  basins,  too,  there  are  considerable  tracts 
of  agricultural  and  grazing  lands.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  beyond  the  coastal  barrier  the 
subsoil  usually  remains  perpetually  frozen  and  the 
climate  is  semi-arid.  These  conditions,  combined 
with  the  shortness  of  the  growing  season  and  the 
liability  of  frosts,  do  not  invite  agricultural  pur- 
suits. Nevertheless,  the  conditions  are  no  more 
adverse  than  those  existing  in  some  European 
countries  which  support  a  thrifty  agricultural 
peasantry  and  export  agricultural  products.  The 
richness  of  the  soil  is  attested  by  the  many  gardens 
foimd  throughout  the  inland  region.  These  are 
specially  successful  where  hot  springs  have  thawed 
the  soil. 

STATISTICS     OF     MINERAL     PRODUCTION     AND 
COMMERCE 

As  regards  the  developed  resources,  little  can 
be  added  to  what  has  already  been  presented. 
The  rapid  increase  in  gold  production  is  shown  in 
the  diagram  on  page  303.  Including  1906,  the 
total  output  of  gold  is  about  $100,000,000,  only 
about  one  quarter  of  which  has  come  from  the 
inland  districts,  as  shown  in  the  table  on  oppo- 
site page: 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  295 


GOLD    PRODUCTION    OF  ALASKA,    WITH    APPROXIMATE    DISTRIBUTION 


YEAR 

PACIFIC 

COASTAL 

BELT. 

COPPER 

RIVER 

AND 

COOK 

INLET 

REGION. 

YUKON 
BASIN. 

SEWARD 
PENINSULA. 

TOTAL. 

1880 

$20,000 

40,000 

150,000 

300,000 

200,000 

275,000 

416,000 

645,000 

815,000 

860,000 

712,000 

800,000 

970,000 

838,000 

882,000 

1,569,500 

1,941,000 

1,799,500 

1,892,000 

2,152,000 

2,606,000 

2,072,000 

2,546,600 

2,843,000 

3,195,800 

3,430,000 

3,500,000 

$20,000 

40,000 

150,000 

301,000 

201,000 

300,000 

446,000 

675,000 

850,000 

900,000 

762,000 

900,000 

1,080,000 

1,038,000 

1,282,000 

2,328,500 

2,861,000 

2,439,500 

2,517,000 

5,602,000 

8,166,000 

6,932,700 

8,283,400 

8,683,600 

9,160,400 

15,630,000 

*2I,200,000 

1881 

1882 

1883 
1884 

$50,000 
120,000 
175,000 
150,000 
150,000 
160,000 
180,000 
375.000 
375.000 
500,000 
500,000 
400,000 

$1,000 

1,000 

25,000 

30,000 

30,000 

35,000 

40,000 

50,000 

100,000 

110,000 

200,000 

400,000 

709,000 

800,000 

450,000 

400,000 

500,000 

650,000 

550,000 

800,000 

1,000,000 

1,300,000 

6,900,000 

10,000,000 

1885 
1886 

1887 
1888 

1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 

1895 
1896 

1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 

$15,000 
75.000 
2,800,000 
4,750,000 
4,130,700 
4,561,800 
4,465,600 
4,164,600 
4,800,000 
7,300,000 

Total 

37,470,400 

3,135,000 

25,081,000 

37,062,700 

102,749,100 

*Production  for  1906  is  estimated. 

The  copper  production,  which  in  1905  was 
valued  at  $750,000,  has  so  far  been  only  from 
the  coastal  zone,  and  therefore  does  not  affect  this 
discussion.  In  1905  4  tons  of  coal  were  exported 
from  Alaska,  as  compared  with  30  tons  of  gold, 
which  strikingly  indicates  that  the  coal-fields  have 
not  yet  been  exploited.     Several  thousand  tons 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  297 

are,  however,  mined  annually  for  local  use.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  both  the  Controller  Bay  and 
Matanuska  coal-fields  carry  some  excellent  coking 
coals,  and,  if  made  accessible  by  railways,  the 
mining  of  this  character  of  fuel  for  smelting  of 
the  copper  ores  is  likely  to  become  an  important 
industry.     (See  map,  page  296.) 

The  custom-house  statistics  show  that  $3,272,- 
411  worth  of  goods  were  carried  to  the  Alaska  Yu- 
kon from  the  United  States  in  1905,  which  prob- 
ably represents  between  15,000  and  20,000  tons  of 
freight.  The  cost  of  the  freight  on  this  tonnage 
amounted  probably  to  over  $1,200,000  to  the  con- 
sumer. This  sum,  allowing  three  quarters  for 
operating  expenses,  would  pay  probably  5  per  cent, 
interest  on  the  cost  of  constructing  200  miles  of 
railway,  or  half  the  distance  from  tide-water  to 
the  Yukon  placer  camps.  I  call  attention  to  this 
to  show  that,  even  with  the  present  condition  of 
development,  railway  projects  are  not  entirely 
visionary. 

COMMERCIAL    DEMANDS    FOR    RAILWAYS 

The  important  mineral-bearing  area  of  Alaska 
falls  into  four  provinces,  most  of  which  are  under- 
going rapid  development.*  These  are  (i)  the 
Pacific  littoral,  (2)  the  Seward  Peninsula,  (3)  the 
Susitna-Copper  River  province,  and  (4)  the  Yukon- 
Tanana  region.  The  Pacific  littoral  lies  for  the 
most  part  on  tide-water,   open   throughout   the 

*  See  map,  page  306. 


298  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

year,  and  needs  no  railway  system  to  develop  it, 
though  there  are  many  places  where  short  lines 
will  eventually  be  built.*  The  Seward  Peninsula, 
which  in  1906  produced  about  $7,300,000  worth  of 
gold,  is  accessible  to  ocean-going  vessels  for  fully 
a  third  of  the  year.  These,  with  the  100  miles  of 
railway  already  in  operation  and  other  projected 
lines,  afford  means  of  communication  which,  while 
it  leaves  much  to  be  desired,  is  sufficient  to  en- 
able large  mining  operations  to  be  carried  on. 

Plans  for  the  construction  of  the  so-called  New 
York-to-Paris  Railway,  across  Alaska  and  Siberia, 
have  found  earnest  advocates  during  the  past 
few  years.  Though  this  project  rather  falls  out- 
side of  the  present  discussion,  yet  it  deserves 
mention,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  for  the  pub- 
licity it  has  received.  Alaska  can  obviously  not 
be  connected  with  the  United  States  by  rail 
except  by  a  line  through  Canadian  territory. f 
When  the  new  Canadian  transcontinental  railway, 
known  as  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific,  which  is  to 
reach  to  the  Pacific  coast  in  latitude  54°,  is  com- 
pleted, a  branch  could  be  extended  northward, 
which  could  reach  Fairbanks  with  800  to  1,000 
miles  of  track.  While  such  a  line  would  not  en- 
counter any  serious  obstacles,  yet  many  watersheds 
would  have  to  be  crossed,  and  as  it  would  run 
transverse  to  the  larger  drainage  channels  there 
would  be  heavy  expense  for  bridges.  A  railway 
from  Fairbanks  to  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  would 

*  See  map,  page  281.  j-  See  map,  page  300. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  299 

require  at  least  600  miles  of  track.  It  is  proposed 
to  tunnel  Bering  Strait,  which  is  54  miles  from  head- 
land to  headland,  but  is  broken  by  the  Diomede 
Islands,  lying  about  half  way  between.  While  tun- 
nels of  the  length  required  are  probably  not  an 
impossible  engineering  feat,  they  are  so  far  beyond 
anything  of  the  kind  as  yet  attempted  that  it  must 
be  a  bold  group  of  capitalists  who  would  undertake 
it.  Ferriage  across  the  strait,  difficult  in  summer 
because  of  the  strong  northerly-setting  current, 
is  impossible  during  seven  or  eight  months  in  the 
year  because  of  the  ice-floes.  As  the  strait  sel- 
dom freezes  over,  communication  without  a  tunnel 
would  be  entirely  interrupted.    (See  map,  p.  300.) 

This  intercontinental  railway  project,  divested 
of  its  glittering  generalities,  amounts  to  this:  The 
first  1 ,000  miles  of  track  would  parallel  the  Pacific 
seaboard  and  reach  a  point  less  than  500  miles 
distant  from  tide-water  by  a  more  direct  route. 
An  additional  600  miles  of  track  would  be  needed 
to  reach  Bering  Strait,  and  this,  too,  would  be  in 
direct  competition  with  deep-water  navigation  for 
at  least  a  third  of  each  year.  Furthermore,  to  con- 
nect the  two  sides  of  the  strait,  as  proposed,  would 
require  two  tunnels  more  than  twice  as  long  as  any 
hitherto  constructed.  The  Siberian  part  of  the 
route  would  appear  to  have  even  less  justifica- 
tion, for  here  1,500  to  2,000  miles  of  unsettled  and 
unproductive  territory  would  have  to  be  traversed. 

Whatever  the  future  may  bring  forth  leading  to 
a  demand   for   railway  connection  with   Seward 


«  « 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  301 

Peninsula,  it  is  certain  that  there  is  at  the  present 
moment  an  urgent  need  for  raihvays  between  the 
Gulf  of  Alaska  and  the  inland  region  lying  to  the 
north.*  Only  by  such  railways  can  the  copper  and 
gold  deposits  of  the  Susitna  and  Copper  rivers  and 
the  placer  fields  of  the  Yukon  reach  their  full 
development.  Here  is  an  area  about  400  miles 
square,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  international 
boundary,  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Circle,  on 
the  west  by  the  154th  meridan,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Pacific,  which  contains,  as  has  been  shown, 
valuable  copper  deposits,  the  best  of  the  known 
Alaskan  coal-fields,  as  well  as  extensive  areas  of 
auriferous  gravels.  Good  grass  land  is  abundant 
and  cattle-raising  can  probably  be  profitably  car- 
ried on  to  supply  the  local  market,  which  is  sure 
to  arise  with  mining  developments.  The  agricul- 
tural values,  though  of  interest  to  the  economist, 
will  probably  be  disregarded  by  the  capital- 
ist, who  will  look  to  the  development  of  mines 
for  returns  on  his  venture.  Certainly  without  the 
ore  and  coal  deposits  there  would  be  no  railways, 
and  without  these  there  will  be  no  agriculture 
until  more  accessible  regions  are  settled. 

Though  now  the  annual  mineral  output  of  this 
province  is  only  about  $10,000,000  in  gold,  there 
appear  to  be  great  possibilities  in  the  way  of 
mining  developments,  provided  it  can  be  made 
accessible  to  commerce. 

The  mining  districts  of  the  Susitna-Copper  River 

*  See  map,  page  306. 


302  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

province  are  only  accessible  by  an  overland  jour- 
ney of  loo  to  300  miles,  for  the  rivers  which  empty 
into  the  Pacific  are  for  the  most  part  torrential  in 
character  and  but  few  are  navigable.  All  the 
supplies  for  these  districts  have  to  be  sledded  in 
during  the  winter  months,  at  a  cost  of  10  to  20 
cents  a  pound.  The  charges  for  summer  trans- 
portation by  pack-horse  are  from  30  cents  to  a 
dollar  a  pound. 

In  the  Yukon  Basin  conditions  are  somewhat 
more  favourable,  because  of  the  extensive  system 
of  navigable  waters.  Before  the  freight  reaches 
the  Yukon,  however,  it  has  to  make  a  circuitous 
route  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  open  to  navigation 
only  from  the  end  of  June  to  September.  During 
summer  months  Yukon  River  steamers  can  deliver 
freight  to  points  20  to  100  miles  distant  from  the 
placer  districts.  This  freight  must  await  the  win- 
ter snow  before  it  can  be  finally  sledded  to  its 
destination,  unless  the  summer  charges  of  20  to 
25  cents  a  pound  are  to  be  paid.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, freight  which  is  moved  by  the  cheapest 
form  of  transportation  (by  steamer  in  summer  and 
sleds  in  winter)  costs  the  miner  from  5  to  10  cents 
a  pound,  delivered  at  his  mine.  Translated  into 
terms  more  familiar  to  the  average  man,  this  means 
that  the  mine  operator  may  have  to  pay  a  rate  on 
all  his  heavy  machinery  equivalent  to  the  charges 
for  express  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco. 
In  fact,  I  have  known  mining  enterprises  to  be 
carried  on  in  localities  to  which  the  transportation 


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Compiled  by  Alfred  H.  Broolci  Copyright,  1907,  by  the  National  Gcogrtphic  Magkzliie 

THE  INCREASING  GOLD  PRODUCTION  OF  ALASKA 


304  TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

charges  were  greater  than  letter-rate  postage. 
Under  such  conditions  it  is  evident  only  deposits  of 
extraordinary  richness  can  be  exploited,  and  that 
most  extensive  mining  operations  must  await  the 
reduction  of  costs  that  can  be  brought  about  only 
by  the  construction  of  a  railway.  (See  map,  p.  281 .) 

GEOGRAPHIC  CONTROL 

Having  set  forth  the  facts  which  go  to  indicate 
that  the  resources  of  central  Alaska  are  sufficient 
to  warrant  the  construction  of  a  railway,  it  is  in 
order  to  consider  the  question  of  geographic  con- 
trol of  routes.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  present 
demand  for  transportation  facilities  is  in  the 
province  lying  between  the  international  boundary 
and  the  154th  meridian,  and  this  district  will  here 
alone  be  considered.*  The  rugged  mountain  mass 
skirting  Alaska's  southern  border  presents  a  serious 
barrier  to  inland  travel.  This  zone,  including  a 
number  of  parallel  ranges  forming  the  Pacific 
Mountain  systems  of  Alaska,  but  50  miles  in  width 
at  Lynn  Canal,  broadens  out  to  the  north-west,  and 
at  Cook  Inlet  attains  a  width  of  over  200  miles. 
Inland  of  this  system  lies  another  province  of  far 
less  relief,  which  has  been  termed  the  Central 
Plateau  region.  The  drainage  of  this  central 
region  is  carried,  for  the  most  part,  to  Bering  Sea 
through  the  Yukon  River,  while  the  waters  of  the 
Pacific  Mountain  province  flow  southward  and 
through  the  Chilkat,  Copper,  Susitna,  and  smaller 

*See  map,  page  300. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  305 

rivers  to  the  Pacific.  One  river  alone,  the  Alsek, 
finds  its  source  in  the  Central  Plateau  region,  and 
traverses  that  entire  Pacific  Mountain  system 
on  its  way  to  the  sea.  Obviously  the  valley  of 
the  Alsek  is  from  a  topographic  standpoint  the 
only  logical  railway  route  into  the  interior.  It  will 
be  shown,  however,  that  the  commercial  and  po- 
litical factors  are  so  adverse  in  case  of  the  Alsek 
Valley  as  to  appear  to  rule  it  out. 

Besides  the  valleys  of  the  larger  rivers,  already 
mentioned  as  flowing  into  the  Pacific,  there  are  a 
number  of  low  passes  breaking  through  the  moun- 
tain barriers.  Among  the  most  important  for  the 
present  discussion  is  the  White  Pass  (2,800  feet), 
a  break  in  the  Coast  Range  north  of  Lynn  Canal, 
across  which  a  railway  has  already  been  built.  At 
the  head  of  the  Chilkat  River,  whose  valley  sepa- 
rates the  Coast  and  Saint  Elias  ranges,  there  is  an 
unnamed  pass  about  3,100  feet  high.  West  of 
Lynn  Canal  the  coastal  range  represents  an  almost 
unbroken  front,  except  for  the  Alsek  and  Copper 
River  valleys.  At  the  inland  front  of  the  Saint 
Elias  Range  the  Alsek  Valley  has  an  altitude  of 
about  2,000  feet,  and  is  connected  with  the  drain- 
age basin  of  the  White  River  to  the  west  by  a  pass 
but  2,400  feet  high.     (See  profiles,  page  286.) 

Low  River,  which  empties  into  Valdez  Inlet 
of  Prince  William  Sound,  is  separated  from  the 
Copper  River  by  Marshall  Pass,  about  1,900  feet 
high.  At  the  head  of  the  Copper  there  are  several 
passes  leading  into  the  Tanana  Valley,  of  which 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT   307 

the  lowest  is  called  Mentasta  (3 ,000  feet),  and  the 
next,  which  is  unnamed,  connects  the  Gulkana 
and  Delta  valleys.  Both  of  these  passes  are 
through  the  eastern  end  of  the  Alaska  Range,  and 
one  or  the  other  will  be  used  by  any  railway  built 
from  the  Copper  basin  into  the  Tanana  Valley. 

It  will  be  evident  from  the  matter  presented  that 
commercial  control  limits  the  choice  of  inland 
railway  routes  to  the  region  lying  between  Lynn 
Canal  on  the  east  and  Cook  Inlet  on  the  west. 
Topographic  control,  furthermore,  limits  the  choice 
to  four  general  zones,  which  may  be  named  after 
the  chief  rivers,  whose  valleys  determine  the 
location.  These  are  named  from  south  to  north: 
(i)  the  Chilkat  basin,  (2)  the  Alsek  basin,  (3) 
the  Copper  basin,  and  (4)  the  Susitna  basin.  (See 
map,  page  306.) 

Harbours 

The  first  requisite  for  an  inland  railway  from 
the  Gulf  of  Alaska  is  an  adequate  coastal  terminal. 
This  means  not  only  a  deep-water  harbour,  but 
also  opportunity  for  construction  of  wharfs,  as 
well  as  a  town  site  near  at  hand.  Other  desirable, 
though  not  absolutely  necessary,  conditions  are 
available  timber,  water  power,  and  a  favourable 
climate.  If  possible,  the  harbour  should  be  access- 
ible to  sailing  as  well  as  steam  vessels,  and  the 
routes  of  approach  should  be  devoid  of  dangers 
to  navigation;  but,  beside  all  these  desirable  at- 
tributes, the  distance  of  the  coastal  terminal  to 


3o8    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

the  points  of  shipment  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
United  States  is  of  first  importance. 

The  recent  geological  history  of  the  Pacific  shore- 
line of  Alaska  is  favourable  to  the  formation  of 
harbours,  for  it  is  a  glaciated  region,  and,  as  many 
have  shown,  glaciation  produces  fiorded  coast- 
lines. This  is,  however,  only  true  where  sediment- 
ation subsequent  to  glaciation  has  not  silted  up 
and  smoothed  out  the  coast-line.  The  first  con- 
dition prevails  in  south-eastern  Alaska  and  on 
Prince  William  Sound,  where  the  coast  is  char- 
acterised by  deep  fiords  with  many  tributary  em- 
bayments.  In  the  intervening  region  the  retreat 
of  the  larger  ice-sheet  left  many  large  glaciers  on 
the  coastal  slope  of  the  Saint  Elias  Range  and  in 
the  Piedmont  belt,  and  these,  having  access  to  bed 
rock  along  their  margins,  have  contributed  a  large 
amount  of  sediment.  This  sediment  has  been  de- 
posited as  extra-glacial  material  and  has  buried 
much  of  the  fiorded  coast-line.  Therefore  the 
physiographic  features  make  south-eastern  Alaska 
or  Prince  William  Sound  the  most  favoured  locali- 
ties for  coastal  terminals.  (See  map,  page  300.) 

Other  factors  have  to  be  considered.  Lynn 
Canal  is  a  superb  deep  waterway,  but  its  funnel 
shape  causes  it  to  be  subject  to  severe  wind-storms, 
and  it  is  therefore  not  favourable  for  sailing  vessels. 
The  same  holds  true,  in  a  less  degree,  of  the  upper 
part  of  Prince  William  Sound.  Resurrection  Bay, 
which  penetrates  the  mainland  to  a  much  shorter 
distance,  affords  an  almost  ideal  harbour.    Though 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    309 

the  shore-line  between  south-eastern  Alaska  and 
Prince  William  Sound  is  not  favourable  for  har- 
bours, yet  two  indentations,  Yakutat  Bay  and 
Controller  Bay,  furnish  some  protection  for 
vessels.      (See  maps,  pages  306  and  310.) 

In  the  comparison  of  distances  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  use  Puget  Sound  as  a  reference  point. 
Lynn  Canal  is  less  than  i  ,000  miles  (statute)  from 
Puget  Sound,  as  compared  with  1,150  for  Yakutat 
Bay,  1,350  for  Cordova  Bay,  1,400  for  Valdez 
Inlet  and  Resurrection  Bay.  The  route  to  Lynn 
Canal  is  by  an  intricate  and  somewhat  dangerous 
inland  waterway,  and  the  actual  time  consumed 
in  the  voyage  is  not  very  much  greater  to  the 
western  harbours  than  to  Lynn  Canal.  As  regards 
climate,  there  is  little  to  choose  between  the 
various  coastal  terminals.  Throughout  the  Pa- 
cific seaboard  there  is  a  heavy  precipitation,  vary- 
ing from  about  90  inches  on  Lynn  Canal  to  about 
125  inches  in  Prince  William  Sound.  Heavy 
storms  are  usually  from  the  south-west,  and  more 
commonly  occur  from  October  until  May.  As 
soon  as  the  mountains  are  entered,  very  heavy 
snowfalls  are  to  be  expected.  The  coastal  belt  is 
usually  heavily  forested  with  timber  which  can  be 
used  in  construction.  (See  maps,  pages  2 93  and  300.) 

PYRAMID  HARBOUR,  TANANA  RIVER  ROUTE 

Chilkat  River  debouches  into  a  western  arm  of 
Lynn  Canal,  called  ''Pyramid  Harbour,"  and  its 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT  311 

valley  separates  the  Saint  Elias  Range  on  the  west 
from  the  Coast  Range  on  the  east.  A  broad  pass 
about  3,000  feet  high,  50  miles  from  the  coast, 
separates  its  head  waters  from  inland-flowing 
streams.  Beyond  this  pass  the  route  would  enter 
the  Alsek  basin  and  follow  the  inland  front  of  the 
Saint  Elias  Range.  Two  forks  of  the  Alsek  will 
have  to  be  crossed,  but  present  no  serious  en- 
gineering difficulties.  A  series  of  depressions, 
part  of  a  system  of  abandoned  valleys,  affords 
an  ideal  railway  route  beyond  the  west  fork  of 
the  Alsek.  The  route  would  probably  skirt  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Kluane  2,400  feet  above  sea- 
level  and  enter  the  White  River  Valley  near  the 
international  boundary.  After  crossing  White 
River  at  the  canyon,  the  line  would  be  extended 
through  a  broad,  fiat  depression  to  the  Tanana 
Valley,  which  would  be  followed  to  Fairbanks. 
There  are  no  very  heavy  grades  to  be  overcome 
in  this  route.  Branch  lines  could  be  built  to 
the  copper  deposits  of  the  White  River  and  to  the 
Fortymile,  Birch  Creek,  and  Rampart  placer  dis- 
tricts. (See  profile,  page  286  and  map,  page  306.) 
Pyramid  Harbour,  which  affords  shelter  for 
vessels  and  opportunities  for  wharf  construction, 
can  be  reached  by  a  i  ,000-mile  journey  from  Puget 
Sound,  entirely  within  sheltered  waterways.  The 
Chilkat  basin  is  well  timbered  (chiefly  spruce  and 
hemlock)  and  contains  some  auriferous  gravels, 
though  the  producing  district  lies  somewhat  off 
the  proposed  railway  route.     The  copper  deposits 


312    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

of  Rainy  Hollow,  which  are  undeveloped,  lie 
about  20  miles  off  the  main  route.  In  the  inland 
region  there  are  no  developed  mineral  resources 
except  a  small  placer  district.  However,  the  meagre 
knowledge  of  the  geology  indicates  that  there  may 
be  here  a  continuation  of  the  mineralised  belt  of 
south-eastern  Alaska,  and  that  workable  ore  de- 
posits may  yet  be  found.     (See  map,  page  289.) 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  a  natural 
route  into  the  interior,  and  it  was  long  used  by  the 
natives  in  their  intertribal  intercourse.  It  has 
one  grave  disadvantage,  namely,  that  for  about 
300  miles  it  traverses  Canadian  territory,  and 
would  therefore  not  afford  an  all- Alaskan  route. 
Under  the  custom  laws,  international  railways  are 
always  at  some  disadvantage,  though  that  this 
is  not  serious  is  shown  by  the  many  railways  be- 
tween Canada  and  the  United  States.  Moreover, 
it  would  not  help  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
Copper  River  and  Susitna  River  basins. 

YAKUTAT  BAY-ALSEK-TANANA  RIVER  ROUTE 

The  lower  Alsek  River  Valley,  which  is  trans- 
verse to  the  Saint  Elias  Range,  affords  a  possible 
route  into  the  interior.  The  line  would  run  south- 
eastward from  Yakutat  Bay  for  about  50  miles, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Alsek.  A  narrow-gauge 
railway  has  already  been  built  for  about  10  miles 
of  this  distance,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  fish 
to  the  salmon  cannery  at  Yakutat.      The  Alsek 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    313 

Valley  is  almost  unexplored,  but  no  doubt  a  rail- 
way could  be  built  through  it.  It  would  intersect 
the  Pyramid  Harbour-Tanana  route,  about  200 
miles  from  the  coast,  and  would  there  attain  an 
altitude  of  about  2 ,400  feet.  (See  profile,  page  286.) 
Yakutat  Bay,  which  is  about  1,150  statute 
miles  (1,000  nautical  miles)  by  sea  from  Puget 
Sound,  is  only  a  fair  harbour,  and,  so  far  as  known, 
the  proposed  railway  would  not  tap  any  mineral 
deposits,  though  such  may  exist  in  the  unexplored 
St.  Elias  Mountains.  At  170  miles  from  Yakutat 
it  joins  the  Pyramid  Harbour  route,  and  is  open  to 
the  same  objection,  inasmuch  as  it  passes  through 
Canadian  territory.  (See  maps,  pages  300  and  306.) 

CORDOVA  BAY,  OR  CONTROLLER  BAY,  COPPER  RIVER 

Cordova  Bay,  an  eastern  arm  of  Prince  William 
Sound,  lies  about  30  miles  west  of  Copper  River. 
A  railway,  now  in  construction,  is  to  follow  a  route 
skirting  the  coastal  margin  of  the  mountains  to  the 
Copper  River,  and  then,  turning  northward,  to 
traverse  the  Chugach  Mountains  through  the  val- 
ley of  that  river.  A  distance  of  about  200  miles 
will  bring  it  to  the  mouth  of  the  Chitina,  and  with 
100  miles  more  of  track  it  will  be  able  to  tap  the 
copper  belt,  which  skirts  the  southern  margin  of 
the  Wrangell  Mountains.  The  route  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Chitina  follows  the  river  grade,  and  there 
are  no  serious  engineering  difficulties,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  bridges,  800  and   1,200  feet 


314    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

in  length,  which  will  have  to  be  built  across  the 
Copper  to  avoid  the  Miles  and  Childs  glaciers. 

A  corollary  to  this  plan  is  to  construct  a  branch 
line  about  35  miles  in  length  from  the  Copper 
River  to  the  Controller  Bay  coal  field.  (See  maps, 
pages  306  and  310.) 

A  rival  company  has  made  a  survey  for  a  rail- 
way from  near  the  mouth  of  Katalla  River,  30 
miles  east  of  the  Copper,  which  is  to  run  north- 
westward to  the  head  of  the  Copper  River  delta. 
A  single  bridge  will  be  needed  to  avoid  the  glaciers, 
beyond  which  point  the  route  will  coincide  with 
the  one  above  described.  This  route  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  one  above  described,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  somewhat  shorter  and  has  to  bridge  the  Copper 
but  once.  Katalla  is  only  1,200  miles  distant  from 
Puget  Sound  as  compared  with  1,350  for  Cordova 
Bay.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Cordova  there  is  an 
excellent  natural  harbour,  while  at  Katalla  a 
breakwater  will  have  to  be  constructed.  On  the 
other  hand,  again,  a  harbour  at  Katalla  would 
serve  the  Controller  Bay  coal-field.  Whichever 
line  is  built,  certain  it  is  that  there  is  not  room  for 
two  railways  along  this  Copper  River  route. 

VALDEZ COPPER  RIVER  ROUTE 

An  alternate  plan  for  reaching  the  copper  belt 
of  the  Chitina  region  is  to  build  a  railway  from 
Valdez.  Valdez  Inlet,  a  north-eastern  arm  of 
Prince  William  Sound,  is  1,400  miles  distant  from 
Puget  Sound.    Surveys  have  been  made  and  some 

*  See  map  page  310. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    315 

construction  work  has  already  been  done  on 
two  railway  projects  which  are  planned  to  cross 
Marshall  Pass,  about  1,900  feet  high  and  30  miles 
from  Valdez,  and  thence  down  the  Tasnuna  River 
to  the  Copper.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Tasnuna 
the  route  would  correspond  with  the  route  up  the 
Copper  River.  The  distance  from  Valdez  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Chitina  is  about  20  miles  less  than 
that  from  Cordova,  but  a  pass  1,900  feet  in  height 
has  to  be  crossed ;  on  the  other  hand,  two  expensive 
bridges  over  the  Copper  would  not  be  needed. 
This  line  would  not  reach  the  Controller  Bay  coal- 
field.    (See  profile,  page  286.) 

Most  of  the  railway  projects  into  the  Copper 
River  have  been  planned  with  the  ultimate  object 
of  extension  into  the  Yukon  Basin.  Some  of  these 
have  chosen  Eagle,  others  Fairbanks,  as  their 
ultimate  objective  point.  Of  the  two.  Eagle  ap- 
pears to  be  the  less  logical,  as  a  line  built  to  it 
would  pass  through  the  eastern  part  of  the  au- 
riferous district,  while  Fairbanks  is  much  more 
central.     (See  map,  page  306.) 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Chitina  a  line  to  Eagle 
would  follow  the  Copper  River  Valley  and  cross 
to  the  Tanana  through  Mentasta  Pass,  2,900  feet 
high.  Crossing  the  Tanana  Valley  the  line  would 
enter  an  upland  region  not  well  known  and  would 
probably  have  to  cross  two  passes,  3,000  feet  high, 
before  it  descended  to  the  Yukon. 

A  line  to  Fairbanks  would  be  built  up  the  Cop- 
per and  Gakona  river  valleys  across  a  pass  3,000 


3i6    TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

feet  high,  and  down  the  Delta  to  the  Tanana. 
Crossing  that  stream,  it  would  continue  down  it 
to  Fairbanks.  (See  profile,  page  286  ) 

RESURRECTION  BAY — SUSITNA  VALLEY  ROUTE 

The  upper  waters  of  the  Susitna  River,  which 
empty  into  Cook  Inlet,  are  separated  by  a  broad, 
low  pass,  about  2,400  feet  high,  from  the  Ninana, 
or  Cantwell,  River,  which  flows  into  the  Tanana. 
This  is  one  of  the  lowest  depressions  in  the  water- 
shed between  the  Pacific  and  the  Yukon.  (See  map, 
page  306.) 

Unfortunately  the  upper  part  of  Cook  Inlet  is 
closed  by  the  winter  ice,  so  that  a  coastal  terminal 
would  have  to  be  sought  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Kenai  Peninsula,  which  separates  Cook  Inlet 
from  the  Pacific.  Such  a  one  has  been  found  in 
Resurrection  Bay,  an  excellent  harbour,  1,400 
miles  distant  from  Puget  Sound.  Here  the  town 
of  Seward  was  located  two  years  ago  and  con- 
struction begun  on  the  so-called  Alaska  Central 
Railway,  of  which  about  50  miles  has  been  com- 
pleted and  considerable  work  done  on  20  miles 
more.  *  This  route  stretches  northward  from  Re- 
surrection Bay  and,  crossing  a  pass,  about  1,000 
feet  high,  about  40  miles  from  the  coast,  descends 
again  to  tide-water  at  the  head  of  Tumagain 
Arm.  After  swinging  around  Tumagain  Arm, 
it  bends  northward,  crossing  the  Matanuska 
near  its  mouth.  Here  a  branch  is  to  be  built  to 
Matanuska  t  coal-field,  the   immediate  objective 

*  See  profile,  page  286.  f  See  map,  page  296. 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    3 1 7 

point  of  the  railway.  It  is  proposed  to  extend  the 
Yukon  trunk  line  up  the  Susitna,  across  the  depres- 
sion above  mentioned,  down  the  Cantwell  to  a 
terminal  which  will  be  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Tanana  River,  near  Fairbanks.  The  total  mileage 
from  Resurrection  Bay  to  Fairbanks  is  about  500. 
While  this  route  is  one  of  the  shortest  from  the 
coast  to  Fairbanks  and  also  has  the  best  grades, 
it  does  not  tap  the  copper  deposits  of  the  Copper 
River,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Matanuska 
coal-field  and  some  placer  districts,  does  not 
traverse  an  area  now  known  to  carry  mineral  in 
commercial  quantities.  (See  maps,  pages  289  and 
296.) 

CONCLUSIONS 

The  matter  presented  shows  that  there  is 
justification  for  a  trunk  line  railway  from  the 
Pacific  seaboard  to  inland  points,  for  it  is  only  by 
rendering  accessible  the  vast  mineral  wealth  of  the 
interior  that  its  full  measure  of  development  can 
be  attained.  It  is  evident  that  the  value  of  such 
a  trunk  line  would  depend  on  the  construction  of 
many  branches  and  feeders,  which  have  not  here 
been  considered.  Furthermore,  these  railways 
must  be  supplemented  by  many  wagon  roads. 

The  history  of  railway  expansion  in  the  United 
States  has  shown  that  the  natural  development 
is,  first,  railroads  built  supplementary  to  estab- 
lished lines  of  water  transportation;  second,  the 
binding  together  of  such  auxiliary  lines  by  a  trunk 


31 8   TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

system.  In  Alaska  the  same  evolution  is  witnessed. 
The  White  Pass  and  Yukon  Railway,  traversing 
the  coastal  barrier,  links  tide-water  with  navi- 
gable waters  of  the  Yukon  system.  The  heavy 
traffic  being  all  down  stream,  what  should  be  a 
comparatively  cheap  form  of  transportation  is 
established  to  Dawson,  a  distance  of  700  miles. 
A  placer  field  such  as  the  Klondike  yields  prac- 
tically no  outgoing  tonnage.  When,  however, 
lode  or  coal  mines  are  developed,  there  is  a  return 
traffic  which  the  upstream  river  steamers  cannot 
handle  economically.  Moreover,  freight  shipped 
to  Alaskan  points  on  the  Yukon  must  run  the 
gamut  of  two  custom-houses,  with  all  the  attend- 
ing annoyances  of  delays  and  formalities.  It 
should  be  remembered,  too,  that  the  route  to 
Fairbanks  via  the  White  Pass  Railway  involves 
the  transhipment  of  freight  at  White  Horse  to 
Canadian  steamers,  a  journey  of  500  miles  to 
Dawson,  then  a  transhipment  to  American  boats 
and  another  journey  of  800  miles,  of  which  200 
miles  is  up  stream.  If  good  connections  are  made, 
some  eight  days  are  consumed  in  going  from  tide- 
water on  Lynn  Canal  to  Fairbanks,  which  by  a 
direct  line  could  be  reached  in  450  miles.  As  a 
rule,  freight  is  at  least  a  month  in  transit.  The 
journey  up  the  river,  while  it  avoids  one  tran- 
shipment, involves  changing  from  ocean  vessels 
to  river  steamers  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  and 
then  a  1,200-mile  upstream  journey.  Moreover, 
these  routes  are  only  open  from  the  first  of  June 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    319 

to  the  middle  of  September.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  that  if  the  resources  of  the  Yukon  are 
sufhcient  to  warrant  the  construction  of  a  railway, 
such  a  railway  should  hold  its  own  against  the 
competition  of  water  transportation.  In  any  event 
a  railway  into  the  Susitna-Copper  River  province 
would  encounter  no  competition  with  steamboat 
transportation. 

Considered  geographically,  the  routes  described 
fall  into  two  classes,  namely,  the  one  comprising 
those  parallel  to  the  lines  of  height,  and  the  other 
those  transverse  to  the  lines  of  height.  In  the  first 
group  belong  the  trans- Alaskan-Siberian  line,  the 
Lynn-Canal-Fairbanks  line,  together  with  its  alter- 
nate, the  Alsek-Fairbanks  line.  (See  map, page  306.) 

These  routes,  as  has  been  shown,  are  parallel  to 
the  dominant  axes  of  uplift,  and  therefore  harmoni- 
ous with  the  topography.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  pioneer  railways  are  usually  transverse 
to  the  watersheds,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  lo- 
cated to  supplement  and  not  to  supplant  water 
transportation.  The  history  of  railway  develop- 
ment in  the  United  States  shows  that  piedmont 
lines  are  the  last  to  be  built.  A  railway  parallel 
to  the  inland  front  of  the  St.  Elias  range  would 
traverse  a  series  of  abandoned  valleys  such  as 
are  everywhere  recognised  as  ideal  topographic 
conditions. 

Geographically,  therefore,  these  routes  would 
appear  to  have  the  advantage,  and  would,  more- 
over, render  accessible  a  large  area  in  the  interior 


320   TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT 

of  Alaska  and  northwest  Canada  not  reached  by 
any  railways  of  the  other  group.  When,  however, 
the  developed  resources  are  considered,  they  are 
at  a  disadvantage,  for,  while  they  would  tap  the 
upper  copper-bearing  region,  they  would  reach 
neither  the  valuable  southern  copper  belt  nor  the 
coal-fields. 

The  transverse  lines,  including  the  Copper 
and  Susitna  routes,  appear,  as  has  been  shown, 
to  follow  the  laws  which  govern  the  location 
of  pioneer  railways,  that  is,  they  cross  the 
watersheds  and  connect  existing  lines  of  water 
transportation. 

In  any  event,  it  is  clear  that  a  properly  located 
transverse  line  must  follow  one  of  the  rivers 
which  traverse  the  coast  ranges.  Two  such 
railways,  one  up  the  Copper  and  one  up  the 
Susitna,  are  already  under  construction.  The 
rival  interests  financing  the  two  projects  have 
been  loud  in  claiming  that  each  route  was  the 
best.  In  point  of  fact,  the  two  supplement  each 
other.  It  is  certain  that  a  railway  by  way  of  the 
Copper  River  follows  the  only  feasible  route  to 
copper  deposits  of  the  Wrangell  region.  It  is 
equally  certain  that  as  a  route  to  the  Yukon  a 
railway  up  the  Susitna  River  has  the  best  of  it. 
Again,  neither  of  these  lines  bisects  Alaska  as 
would  a  railway  extending  from  Lynn  Canal  to 
Fairbanks  and  to  the  Seward  Peninsula. 

The  matter  presented  in  the  foregoing  pages 
indicates    that    more    facts    are    needed    before 


TO  THE  TOP  OF  THE  CONTINENT    321 

scientific  deduction  can  be  drawn  of  the  best  route 
for  immediate  construction.  Meanwhile,  however, 
in  view  of  the  large  amount  of  capital  ready  for 
investment  in  any  promising  enterprise,  it  is  only 
too  likely  that  the  problem  will  be  solved  by 
experimentation  alone,  as  has  been  done  at  great 
cost  elsewhere;  in  other  words,  by  the  survival 
of  the  fittest. 


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